​Syzygium Aromaticum (Clove Tree)

Syzygium Aromaticum (Clove Tree)

Product Name: Гвоздичное дерево, Syzygium aromaticum, Nelkenbaum, Árbol de clavo, Giroflier, القرنفل, ต้นกานพลู, Gvozdika daraxti, Гвоздика дарагычы, Mixək ağacı, Михак, Gvazdikmedis, Krustnagliņu koks, Гвоздичне дерево, ציפורן

Synonyms: гвоздичник, гвоздичное дерево, гвоздика настоящая, clove tree, clove plant, Nelkenbaum, Gewürznelkenbaum, clavo de olor, árbol del clavo, giroflier, arbre à clous, قرنفل، شجرة القرنفل, ต้นกานพลู, พืชกานพลู

Parts used: buds, leaves, branches, bark, seeds, fruits, essential oil, wood extracts, buds.

Main indications for the use of Syzygium aromaticum: Chronic gastritis, gastric ulcer disease, infectious stomatitis, periodontitis, oral candidiasis, intestinal dysbiosis, intestinal colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, myalgia, otitis media, bronchitis, tracheitis, pharyngitis, influenza, herpetic infection, pyoderma, furunculosis, cutaneous candidiasis, helminthiasis, neuropathic pain, dental caries, hyperglycemia, obesity.

Use of Syzygium aromaticum in mixtures and complexes: Chronic pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic bronchitis with obstructive component, allergic rhinitis, psoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, neurodermatitis, anemia, insulin resistance, arterial hypertension, chronic prostatitis, vulvovaginitis.

Pharmacological properties of Syzygium aromaticum: antiseptic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, carminative, immunomodulatory, antifungal, hepatoprotective, insecticidal, hypoglycemic, antiulcer, repellent, antiviral, carminative, antiparasitic, antinociceptive, antipyretic, sedative, aphrodisiac.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Syzygium aromaticum

Powder — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Powder): Chronic gastritis, dyspepsia, flatulence, oral candidiasis, helminthiasis, neuropathic pain, hyperglycemia, obesity.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 250–500 milligrams 2 times a day orally, 30 minutes before meals, with warm water.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 1000 milligrams 2–3 times a day. Used for pronounced flatulence, acute intestinal colic, pinworm and Giardia infestations, and pronounced hyperglycemia.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 2000 milligrams 3 times a day. Used for helminthiasis (ascariasis, hookworm disease), pronounced dyspepsia, and pain syndrome in myalgia and arthritis.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 250 milligrams once a day. Recommended for a tendency to flatulence, chronic dysbiosis, prediabetes, and initial stage of obesity. Take in courses of 14 days with a 7-day break.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): Permissible from 5 years of age with a body weight from 20 kilograms. Dosage — 100 milligrams once a day. Only as prescribed by a doctor.

Contraindications (Powder): Gastritis with increased acidity, gastric ulcer in the acute phase, hypersensitivity. No scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in childhood have been registered.

Side Effects (Powder): Irritation of the gastric mucosa, nausea, heartburn; in case of overdose — coordination disorders, dizziness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Powder): For body weight less than 60 kilograms — reduce the dosage by 25%. For body weight more than 90 kilograms — increase the dosage by 25%.

Preparation method (Powder): Dry clove buds are thoroughly dried to brittleness at a temperature of 40–45 degrees Celsius. Then ground in a micromill to a homogeneous powder state. For 100 grams of powder, 120 grams of dry buds are required. Store in an airtight glass container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): Store in a tightly closed glass container, in a dry, dark, cool place at a temperature not exceeding 25 degrees Celsius. Avoid exposure to direct light and electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening the package, use within 60 days.

Dry Extract — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Dry Extract): Chronic gastritis, dyspepsia, oral candidiasis, rheumatoid arthritis, bronchitis, hyperglycemia, cutaneous candidiasis, anemia.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 200–400 milligrams 1–2 times a day orally, preferably during meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 600 milligrams 2 times a day. Recommended for chronic inflammation of the respiratory tract, pronounced candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 800 milligrams 3 times a day. Permissible in the acute phase of bronchitis, osteoarthritis, and chronic rheumatism.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 100 milligrams once a day for 3 weeks. Recommended for chronic fatigue, unstable blood glucose, recurrent candidiasis, and seasonal prevention of bronchopulmonary infections.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): Recommended for children from 7 years of age with a body weight from 25 kilograms. 50–100 milligrams once a day.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): Individual intolerance, pregnancy, ulcerative disease in the acute phase. No registered data on contraindications during breastfeeding.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): Excessive sedation, headache, gastric irritation when the dosage is exceeded.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Dry Extract): For patients with body weight less than 50 kilograms — reduce the dose by 30%. More than 85 kilograms — increase by 20%.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): Ground buds are poured with distilled water (1:10), extracted at a temperature of 85–90 degrees Celsius for 2 hours. The resulting solution is filtered, evaporated in a vacuum dryer at a temperature of 50 degrees Celsius to obtain a dry residue. For 100 grams of dry extract, 1 kilogram of dry buds is required.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): Store in airtight packaging at a temperature not exceeding 25 degrees Celsius, in a dry, light-protected place. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 60 days.

Alcohol-Based Tincture — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Tincture): Infectious stomatitis, periodontitis, oral candidiasis, neuropathic pain, myalgia, furunculosis, pyoderma, cutaneous candidiasis.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): 15–20 drops 2 times a day orally after meals, can be dissolved in 50 milliliters of warm water. For external use — in the form of lotions or applications 2–3 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 30 drops 2–3 times a day. Externally — up to 4 applications per day. Used for purulent-inflammatory skin processes, pronounced pain in neuralgia, and skin candidiasis.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): Up to 50 drops 3 times a day orally. Externally — no more than 6 times a day. Used for severe forms of pyoderma, recurrent furunculosis, and herpetic infection.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 drops once a day orally in a course of 10–14 days. Externally — for the prevention of fungal infections of the skin of the feet and interdigital folds.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): Permissible from 12 years, 5–7 drops 1–2 times a day. External use is possible from 7 years.

Contraindications (Tincture): Alcohol dependence, liver diseases, epilepsy, age under 12 years for oral use. No scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have been registered.

Side Effects (Tincture): Headache, mucosal irritation, dizziness in case of overdose.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Tincture): For patients up to 50 kilograms — reduce the dose by 25%. More than 90 kilograms — increase by 25%.

Preparation method (Tincture): Ground buds (20 grams) are poured with 100 milliliters of 70% ethyl alcohol. Infused in an airtight glass container in a dark place at a temperature of 20–25 degrees Celsius for 10 days, shaken periodically. Upon completion of infusion — strain.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): Store in a tightly closed dark glass bottle, at a temperature of 5 to 25 degrees Celsius, in a light-protected place. Shelf life — up to 3 years. After opening — use within 90 days.

Oil Infusion — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Oil Infusion): Myalgia, osteoarthritis, neuralgia, herpetic infection, cutaneous candidiasis, skin itching, insect bites, furunculosis.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): Externally — apply a thin layer to affected areas of the skin 1–2 times a day. For massage purposes — 5–10 milliliters per session.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): Apply up to 4 times a day for pronounced joint pain, soft tissue inflammation, and severe itching.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): Up to 6 applications per day. Used for acute pain, skin inflammation, and herpetic rashes.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): Once a day after a shower — for a tendency to fungal infections of the feet, skin itching, and excessive sweating. Recommended for persons with obesity, impaired limb innervation, and diabetes.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): Permissible from 3 years. Used externally once a day on limited areas of the skin in a dose of no more than 1 milliliter.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): Allergic dermatoses, individual sensitivity to components. No registered data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): Burning, redness, local skin irritation in case of overdose or hypersensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oil Infusion): For patients with body weight up to 40 kilograms — the volume of application should not exceed 2 milliliters per day.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): Ground dry buds (20 grams) are poured with 100 milliliters of coconut oil. Infused in a water bath at a temperature of 40–45 degrees Celsius for 3 hours. Then the mixture is infused for another 3 days at room temperature in a dark place, after which it is filtered.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): Store in a tightly closed dark glass bottle at a temperature of 5 to 20 degrees Celsius, in a place protected from light and heat. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Vaginal Suppository — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Vaginal Suppository): Vaginal candidiasis, bacterial vaginosis, trichomonal colpitis, cervical inflammation, nonspecific vaginitis, vulvar itching and burning.

Standard Dosage (Vaginal Suppository): One suppository (500 milligrams of active substance) once a day at night for 7 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Vaginal Suppository): One suppository 2 times a day (morning and evening) for 10 days. Used for severe forms of vaginal candidiasis and mixed bacterial-fungal infections.

Maximum Dosage (Vaginal Suppository): Up to 3 suppositories per day (at equal time intervals) for no more than 5 days. Used for recurrent colpitis and resistant candidiasis.

Preventive Dosage (Vaginal Suppository): 1 suppository 2 times a week for one month. Indicated for women with recurrent candidiasis, hormonal instability, reduced immunity, and long-term antibiotic use.

Pediatric Dosage (Vaginal Suppository): Not used in children and adolescents under 16 years.

Contraindications (Vaginal Suppository): First trimester of pregnancy, individual intolerance. No data on safety during lactation.

Side Effects (Vaginal Suppository): Burning, itching, hyperemia of the vaginal mucosa, increased discharge.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Vaginal Suppository): Dose adjustment is not required.

Preparation method (Vaginal Suppository): Dry clove bud extract — 5 grams, cocoa butter — 95 grams. Melt the cocoa butter in a water bath to a temperature of 36–38 degrees Celsius, add the extract and mix thoroughly. Pour into molds with a volume of 2 grams. Cool until completely solidified. Yield: 100 suppositories of 1 gram each.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Vaginal Suppository): Store at a temperature of +2 to +8 degrees Celsius in the original packaging. Avoid overheating and light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening the package, use within 10 days.

Rectal Suppository — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Rectal Suppository): Hemorrhoids, anal fissure, proctitis, inflammation of the rectum, parasitic infestations (pinworms, roundworms).

Standard Dosage (Rectal Suppository): 1 suppository (500 milligrams of active substance) at night for 5–7 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Rectal Suppository): 2 suppositories per day (morning and evening) for 10 days. Used for pronounced inflammation, pain syndrome, and combined hemorrhoids.

Maximum Dosage (Rectal Suppository): 3 suppositories per day (every 8 hours) for 3–5 days. Permissible for helminthiasis and acute pain.

Preventive Dosage (Rectal Suppository): 1 suppository 2 times a week for one month. Recommended for patients with chronic hemorrhoids, constipation, and a tendency to inflammation of the rectal mucosa.

Pediatric Dosage (Rectal Suppository): Applicable from 6 years. Body weight from 20 kilograms. Dosage — 1/2 of a suppository (250 milligrams) once a day.

Contraindications (Rectal Suppository): Acute inflammatory diseases of the rectum with bleeding, hypersensitivity. No data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have been registered.

Side Effects (Rectal Suppository): Burning in the anus, mucosal irritation, urges to defecate.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Rectal Suppository): For body weight less than 50 kilograms, use half a dose.

Preparation method (Rectal Suppository): Dry clove bud powder — 3 grams, coconut oil — 97 grams. Melt the coconut oil to 38 degrees Celsius, add the powder, mix thoroughly, and pour into molds of 2 grams each. Cool. Yield: 50 suppositories.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Rectal Suppository): Store in the refrigerator at a temperature of 2 to 8 degrees Celsius in airtight packaging. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening — no more than 10 days.

Nasal Drops — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Nasal Drops): Allergic rhinitis, infectious rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, nasal congestion, viral rhinopharyngitis.

Standard Dosage (Nasal Drops): 1–2 drops into each nostril 3 times a day. Course of 5–7 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Nasal Drops): 2 drops into each nostril 4–5 times a day. Used for pronounced nasal congestion, purulent discharge, and acute viral infections.

Maximum Dosage (Nasal Drops): 3 drops 5–6 times a day. Permissible for no more than 3 days in a row. Used for severe forms of sinusitis and acute rhinitis.

Preventive Dosage (Nasal Drops): 1 drop into each nostril once a day in the morning. Used during cold seasons, with a tendency to sinusitis and chronic rhinitis. Preventive course — up to 10 days.

Pediatric Dosage (Nasal Drops): From 6 years — 1 drop 2 times a day. Only when diluted 1:1 with apricot kernel oil.

Contraindications (Nasal Drops): Individual intolerance. Acute nosebleeds. No data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have been registered.

Side Effects (Nasal Drops): Burning in the nose, sneezing, lacrimation. In case of overdose — mucosal irritation and reflex hypersecretion.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Nasal Drops): Adjustment is not required.

Preparation method (Nasal Drops): Clove essential oil — 1 gram, coconut oil — 9 grams. Mix thoroughly until homogeneous, store in a dropper bottle. In case of hypersensitivity — dilute 1:1 with jojoba oil.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Nasal Drops): Store in a tightly closed dropper bottle, in the refrigerator at a temperature of +2 to +8 degrees Celsius. Shelf life — 30 days. After opening, use within 10 days.

Ear Drops — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Ear Drops): Acute and chronic otitis, itching of the ear canal, cerumen plugs, bacterial eczema of the ear canal.

Standard Dosage (Ear Drops): 2 drops into the external auditory canal 2 times a day. Course of 5 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ear Drops): 3 drops 3 times a day. Used for pronounced inflammation and pain syndrome.

Maximum Dosage (Ear Drops): Up to 4 drops 4 times a day, no more than 3 days in a row. Used for purulent otitis with external manifestations.

Preventive Dosage (Ear Drops): 1 drop into each ear canal once a day for 5 days. Recommended for patients with frequent otitis, those swimming in pools, and those wearing hearing aids.

Pediatric Dosage (Ear Drops): From 5 years — 1 drop once a day. Used in a dilution of 1:2 with almond oil.

Contraindications (Ear Drops): Perforation of the tympanic membrane, purulent discharge from the ear, individual intolerance. No data on safety during pregnancy and lactation.

Side Effects (Ear Drops): Burning, tinnitus, dizziness in case of overdose or intolerance.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ear Drops): For weight less than 40 kilograms, the dosage is halved.

Preparation method (Ear Drops): Clove essential oil — 2 grams, coconut oil — 8 grams. Mix to a homogeneous emulsion. Prepare under sterile conditions. Package in dark glass dropper bottles.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ear Drops): Store at a temperature of +5 to +15 degrees Celsius, in a light-protected place. After opening, use within 14 days. Total shelf life — 3 months.

Ointment — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Ointment): Pyoderma, furunculosis, herpetic infection, cutaneous candidiasis, insect bites, neurodermatitis, seborrheic dermatitis, myalgia.

Standard Dosage (Ointment): Apply a thin layer to the affected area of skin 2 times a day. Course of 5–10 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): Apply up to 4 times a day for pronounced inflammation, purulent processes, and herpetic rashes.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): Up to 6 applications per day, with a covering bandage. Used for recurrent herpetic infection and multiple furuncles.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): Once a day on areas of skin prone to irritation or fungal infections (interdigital folds, feet, inguinal area). Recommended for diabetes, excessive sweating, and reduced local immunity.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): From 3 years — once a day on limited areas of the skin. Up to 2 grams per day.

Contraindications (Ointment): Purulent processes with systemic intoxication, individual intolerance. No data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation.

Side Effects (Ointment): Burning, skin irritation, hyperemia, contact dermatitis with prolonged use.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ointment): For patients with body weight less than 50 kilograms — no more than 4 grams of ointment per day.

Preparation method (Ointment): Dry clove extract — 5 grams, coconut oil — 60 grams, beeswax — 35 grams. Melt the oil and wax in a water bath to 50 degrees Celsius, add the extract, mix thoroughly until homogeneous. Pour into sterile jars.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): Store at a temperature of +5 to +20 degrees Celsius, in a tightly closed container, protected from light. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening — 30 days.

Cream — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Cream): Seborrheic dermatitis, skin irritation, allergic dermatitis, acne, itching, redness, irritation after shaving, eczema.

Standard Dosage (Cream): Apply a thin layer to clean dry skin 1–2 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): Up to 3–4 applications per day for inflamed rashes, pronounced itching and peeling.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): Up to 6 applications per day. Permissible for no more than 5 days in a row. Used in the acute stage of dermatitis.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): Once a day in the evening on problem areas of the skin. Suitable for people with sensitive skin, adolescents with oily skin prone to acne.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): From 3 years — apply once a day on limited areas of the skin. Volume — up to 1 gram.

Contraindications (Cream): Individual intolerance. Do not apply to open wounds and mucous membranes. No data on pregnancy and lactation.

Side Effects (Cream): Short-term tingling, burning, contact dermatitis with prolonged use.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cream): Adjustment is not required.

Preparation method (Cream): Clove essential oil — 1 gram, clove extract — 3 grams, coconut oil — 40 grams, distilled water — 50 grams, lecithin-based emulsifier — 6 grams. Heat the aqueous and oil phases to 40 degrees Celsius, then combine, mix with a mixer to a creamy texture.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): Store in airtight packaging in the refrigerator at a temperature of +2 to +8 degrees Celsius. Shelf life — 3 months. After opening — no more than 21 days.

Cosmetic Serum — Syzygium aromaticum

Indications (Cosmetic Serum): Comedones, acne, enlarged pores, dull complexion, inflammatory elements on the skin, age-related skin changes, tendency to seborrhea.

Standard Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Apply 2–3 drops to cleansed facial skin once a day in the evening.

Enhanced Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Apply 3–5 drops 2 times a day (morning and evening) for inflammatory elements, oily seborrheic skin, and enlarged pores.

Maximum Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Up to 6 drops 3 times a day, no more than 5 days in a row. Used spot-on on inflamed areas, not recommended on the entire face at this dose.

Preventive Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): 1–2 drops every other day on the T-zone of the face. Recommended for adolescents with combination skin, people with oily shine and a tendency to acne. Course of 14–21 days.

Pediatric Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): From 12 years, with medical indications. 1 drop once a day, only on problem areas.

Contraindications (Cosmetic Serum): Skin hypersensitivity, rosacea, damaged skin, allergy to essential oils. During pregnancy and lactation, use only after consultation with a cosmetologist.

Side Effects (Cosmetic Serum): Local redness, burning, peeling, contact allergy when the dosage is exceeded or with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cosmetic Serum): Adjustment is not required; the dosage depends on the area of application and skin sensitivity.

Preparation method (Cosmetic Serum): Clove essential oil — 0.5 grams, lavender hydrolate — 30 grams, low molecular weight hyaluronic acid — 1 gram, aloe vera extract — 20 grams, distilled water — 48.5 grams. Combine all components at a temperature of 20–22 degrees Celsius under sterile conditions, mix until homogeneous. Package in dropper bottles.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cosmetic Serum): Store at a temperature of +4 to +8 degrees Celsius, in a dark place. Shelf life — 3 months. After opening, use within 30 days. Avoid exposure to direct light and contamination of the dispenser.

Toxicity and Biosafety of Syzygium aromaticum

Studies of the toxicological profile of Syzygium aromaticum show a high degree of biological safety upon oral, external, and inhalation use at therapeutic doses. The main active substance responsible for potential toxicity is eugenol, the main component of clove essential oil.

An acute toxicological study of the LD₅₀ of eugenol (orally, in rats) showed a value of 2680 mg/kg body weight. In studies on mice, the oral LD₅₀ was 1930 mg/kg. These values indicate low acute toxicity and a high therapeutic index when recommended dosages are observed.

Nevertheless, in case of overdose of essential oil, the development of hepatotoxicity, irritation of mucous membranes, dizziness, and CNS depression is possible. Eugenol in high concentrations can cause contact dermatitis.

Systematic reviews have not revealed mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic effects with long-term use of Syzygium aromaticum in traditional medicine.

Reference: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Eugenol#section=Pharmacology-and-Biochemistry

Pharmacodynamics — Syzygium aromaticum

Syzygium aromaticum has a wide range of pharmacodynamic effects, confirmed by both in vitro and in vivo studies. The main active components of the plant, mainly essential oil and the eugenol contained in it, have a pronounced biological effect at the cellular and systemic levels.

At the level of the immune system, modulating activity has been identified: components of the clove tree can change the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Studies have demonstrated a decrease in the production of interleukins (IL-6, IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), which indicates anti-inflammatory potential. Systemically, this manifests as stabilization of the immune response and reduction of inflammatory activity.

With respect to the nervous system, moderate sedative and analgesic effects have been established, due to action on GABAergic transmission receptors and suppression of pain mediators, including through modulation of sensitive neurons. Eugenol and other terpene components can interact with ion channels, including sodium and calcium channels, thereby regulating the excitability of nerve endings.

Within the gastrointestinal tract, the clove tree exhibits antispasmodic activity through inhibition of smooth muscle contractions, mediated through antagonism of muscarinic receptors and partial influence on calcium channels. Along with this, moderate suppression of hydrochloric acid secretion and a gastroprotective effect are recorded.

The skin is one of the targets of the local action of Syzygium aromaticum. Eugenol has demonstrated antioxidant and antimicrobial activity at the epidermal level, including inhibition of bacterial and fungal growth. A decrease in oxidative stress due to neutralization of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and stimulation of the activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase) has been recorded.

At the systemic level, the clove tree is involved in the regulation of endocrine activity, in particular through modulation of plasma glucose levels and effects on receptor complexes associated with insulin sensitivity. An effect on microsomal enzyme systems of the liver has also been described, which may affect the metabolism of various xenobiotics.

Proposed pharmacological targets include receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid, opioid receptors, prostaglandin receptors, as well as enzyme complexes of the lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways. The action is manifested at both the local and systemic levels, with high biological activity with various routes of administration.

References:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...
https://www.sciencedirect.com/...
https://www.tandfonline.com/do...

Pharmacokinetics — Syzygium aromaticum

The pharmacokinetics of the active components of Syzygium aromaticum depend on the dosage form and route of administration. The main route of application is oral, but transdermal, inhalation, and mucosal routes are also actively used.

Upon oral administration, substances contained in the clove tree, primarily eugenol, undergo partial absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Absorption occurs mainly in the small intestine by passive diffusion. Biotransformation begins already at the level of the mucous membrane, and the main part of metabolism occurs in the liver. The participation of cytochrome P450 enzymes in the process of oxidation, conjugation, and subsequent transformation of eugenol and other phenolic compounds is assumed.

After absorption, components are distributed predominantly in lipophilic tissues, including the liver, skin, and adipose tissue. Due to the moderate lipophilicity of eugenol, a capacity for temporary accumulation in subcutaneous layers and glandular structures is observed.

With external use, active components show limited systemic absorption, but retain high local bioavailability. Eugenol is able to penetrate the epidermal barrier, especially when used in the form of ointment, oil infusion, or cream.

With the inhalation route (including aromatherapeutic use), components of the essential oil quickly reach the olfactory bulb and can exert a central effect, bypassing the blood-brain barrier. In this case, metabolism occurs mainly in the liver after entering the systemic circulation.

Excretion of metabolic products is carried out primarily by the kidneys in the form of conjugates with glucuronic acid or sulfates. An insignificant part may be excreted through the lungs (in the case of inhalation use), as well as with sweat and bile.

Possible interaction with the intestinal microflora is associated with the metabolism of phenolic compounds, which may affect the microbiome and enzymatic activity of bacteria. The ability to accumulate in tissues is limited; long-term use does not lead to toxic accumulation when therapeutic dosages are observed.

References:
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.g...
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Ph...
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Syzygium aromaticum

The pharmacological activity of Syzygium aromaticum is determined primarily by the high content of phenylpropanoids, mainly eugenol, as well as other volatile components and tannins. Eugenol demonstrates a direct inhibitory effect on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins — key mediators of inflammation. This effect is realized through suppression of COX-2 gene expression and inhibition of enzyme activity, which reduces PGE2 production and decreases inflammatory reactions at the tissue level.

In addition, it has been established that components of the clove tree affect the NF-κB signaling pathway, which plays a central role in the regulation of the inflammatory response. Under the action of eugenol and its related metabolites, inhibition of the nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB occurs, which reduces the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. This confirms the participation of Syzygium aromaticum in the modulation of cellular regulation of inflammation through genetic mechanisms.

The effect of plant components on cellular antioxidant systems has been proven. Eugenol activates endogenous antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, and is also capable of neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen species (RNS). The effect is realized at the level of the cytoplasm and membranes, where eugenol stabilizes the lipid matrix, preventing lipid peroxidation.

Within the framework of neuropharmacological studies, interaction with GABAA receptors has been established, which explains the sedative and moderate anxiolytic effect. A blocking effect on sodium channels in peripheral nerves has also been identified, which manifests as analgesic and local anesthetic action.

There is evidence of the effect of Syzygium aromaticum components on the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which allows the plant to be considered as a source of a mild inhibitor of this enzyme. This action is manifested predominantly in neuronal tissue and may be associated with neuroprotection potential.

Antimicrobial activity is associated with the destruction of the cell membrane of bacteria and fungi, disruption of ion channel transport, and denaturation of cell wall proteins. In vitro studies have confirmed the ability of eugenol to inhibit the growth of various strains of pathogenic flora, including Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Escherichia coli, by changing membrane permeability and inhibiting the enzyme systems of the microbial cell.

References:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/...
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...
https://www.tandfonline.com/do...

Synergy — Syzygium aromaticum

Syzygium aromaticum demonstrates pronounced synergy with a number of natural substances and medicinal plants, especially in the area of anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects. It has been established that eugenol, being an active compound of the clove tree, potentiates the action of polyphenolic structures of other plants through the combined suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibition of COX-2.

When combined with curcumin, an additive and potentiating effect is observed in reducing the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and suppressing iNOS expression. These components act complementarily: curcumin suppresses the activation of the JAK/STAT cascade, while eugenol inhibits NF-κB and COX. Such interaction forms tissue-specific modulation of the inflammatory response.

The combination with rosemary extract has an enhanced antioxidant effect due to the cumulation of free radical neutralizing activity. Eugenol promotes the regeneration of glutathione, while carnosic acid from rosemary stimulates the expression of the NRF2 gene, responsible for the antioxidant response. This interaction is synergistic and cell-protective in nature.

When used together with oils of lavender, tea tree, or thyme, an enhancement of antimicrobial activity is observed. Synergy is realized through the destruction of the bacterial wall and suppression of key enzyme systems of pathogens. In vitro studies have confirmed that the complex of essential oils is capable of suppressing the growth of resistant strains, such as MRSA, at concentrations below individual MICs.

Functional compatibility of Syzygium aromaticum with components acting on opioid receptors, including plant alkaloids, has also been described. This creates potential for pain modulation at lower doses of each substance, reducing the risk of side effects.

References:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...
https://www.sciencedirect.com/...
https://www.frontiersin.org/ar...

Geography of Use and Traditional Medicine — Syzygium aromaticum

Syzygium aromaticum has a long history of use, covering South and Southeast Asia, East Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. The plant is considered to originate from the Maluku Islands (modern Indonesia), from where cloves spread along the trade routes of the Indian Ocean. One of the earliest mentions is considered to be a Chinese treatise of the Han Dynasty (3rd century BC), where cloves are mentioned as an aromatic agent used to freshen breath in the palace.

In traditional Chinese medicine, Syzygium aromaticum was used as a component of warming formulations, especially to stimulate the "kidney fire" and regulate the flow of qi energy. The plant was used in the form of powder, aqueous decoction, alcohol tincture, and as a component of smoking mixtures. It was also used as a component of cleansing compositions aimed at eliminating "dampness and cold" in the body.

In the Indian Ayurvedic tradition, cloves were revered as a plant of hot nature. They were used in oil mixtures, pastes, and lozenges. Often used externally in the form of wraps, massage pastes, and aromatic oils. Cloves were considered an activating component for agni (digestive fire) and were included in ritual incense and sacred lamps.

In the territory of the Middle East and North Africa, cloves are mentioned in Arabic medical texts of the 9th–10th centuries, including those of Al-Kindi and Ibn Sina. In the Islamic medical tradition, cloves were used as part of complex compositions including spices, musk, frankincense, and other plants. In regional practice, they were also used in the form of chewing mixtures and as a flavoring for oil used in baths and ritual anointings.

In African traditional medicine, especially among the Swahili, Zulu, and Malagasy peoples, cloves were used for rubdowns, fumigations, and as amulets. Dried buds were often worn in small bags on the body as protection against the evil eye and diseases, and were also burned in ritual ceremonies.

In European folk medicine of the Middle Ages, cloves were widely used in monastic phytotherapy. They were added to infusions, ointments, and alcoholic elixirs. In Slavic herbalism, cloves were considered a spice with "warming power," often used for fumigating houses, ritual purification, and as part of protective dolls.

In the Thai tradition, cloves are used in the folk medicine of the northern and central regions, most often in the form of oil tinctures and as part of balms. Buds are also used in smoking mixtures (for purification rituals) and as an ingredient in traditional hot compresses (luk pra kob).

In the ritual practice of some peoples of Southeast Asia, cloves symbolize protection, strength, and light. Their aroma was considered favorable for meditation and the expulsion of negative energy. In some cultures, cloves were used as an element of wedding rituals, where their aroma was associated with purity and passion.