Trigonostemon reidioides

Trigonostemon reidioides

Product Name: Трифасциата красная, Trigonostemon reidioides, Dreifarbiger Trigonostemon, Trigonostemon rojo, Trigonostémon rouge, تريغونوسيتمون الأحمر, ตริโกโนสเตมอน เรดิโออิเดส, Trigonostemon qizil, Тригoнocтeмoн кызыл, Trigonostemon qırmızı, Тригоностемон сурх, Trigonostemon raudonas, Trigonostemon sarkanais, Тригоностемон червоний, טריגונוסטמון האדום

Synonyms: Трифасциата, Красный тригоностемон, Trigonostemon tricolor, Red Trigonostemon, Dreifarbiger Dreispitzstrauch, Trigonostemon tricolor rojo, Trigonostémon tricolore rouge, تريغونوسيتمون ثلاثي الألوان, ตริโกโนสเตมอน ไตรคัลเลอร์

Parts Used: leaves, stems, bark, roots, seeds, latex,

Main indications for use of Trigonostemon reidioides: Acute osteomyelitis, phlegmon, soft tissue abscess, trichophytosis, skin candidiasis, shingles, viral warts, ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, acute purulent otitis media, ulcerative necrotic tonsillitis, acute dysentery, viral gastroenteritis, trichuriasis, hookworm disease.

Use of Trigonostemon reidioides in mixtures and complexes: Chronic tonsillitis, chronic sinusitis, bronchiectasis, recurrent herpetic infection, gastric and duodenal ulcer, chronic pancreatitis, parasitic dermatoses, seborrheic dermatitis, hyperkeratosis, systemic candidiasis, chronic colitis, intestinal dysbiosis.

Pharmacological properties of Trigonostemon reidioides: antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, keratolytic, immunomodulating, anti-inflammatory, astringent, cauterizing, local anesthetic, insecticidal.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Trigonostemon reidioides

Powder — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Powder): Acute osteomyelitis, phlegmon, soft tissue abscess, ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, acute purulent otitis media, viral gastroenteritis, trichuriasis, skin candidiasis, viral warts, hookworm disease.

Standard Dosage (Powder): orally 1 gram of powder 2 times a day, with 100 milliliters of warm water, course 10 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): orally 1.5 grams of powder 3 times a day for acute osteomyelitis, phlegmon, soft tissue abscess, ulcerative necrotic tonsillitis, acute forms of hookworm disease.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): orally 2 grams of powder 3 times a day for ulcerative necrotic lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, purulent necrotic sinusitis, systemic cutaneous candidiasis.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): orally 0.5 grams of powder once a day for 14 days every 3 months for chronic colitis, recurrent viral gastroenteritis, tendency to parasitic infestations, in patients with immunodeficiency.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): from 7 years old and body weight of at least 25 kg, orally 250 milligrams of powder 2 times a day, with 100 milliliters of warm water.

Contraindications (Powder): individual intolerance, acute nephritis. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 7 years old are not registered in scientific sources.

Side Effects (Powder): nausea, short-term epigastric pain, feeling of bitterness in the mouth when exceeding the dosage of more than 6 grams per day.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight less than 60 kilograms, reduce the dose by 25 percent; for body weight over 90 kilograms, a dose increase of 15 percent is possible if there are no liver or kidney pathologies.

Preparation method (Powder): collect mature dried leaves and stems, chop with a knife, then dry at a temperature not exceeding 45 °C in a drying oven or dehydrator until residual humidity reaches less than 10 percent, grind to a fine powder using a mill, sieve through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 0.25 millimeters. From 100 grams of raw material, the yield is 85-90 grams of powder. Chemical additives and fillers are not used.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): store in hermetically sealed containers made of dark glass or laminated bags, at a temperature of 5 to 25 °C, in a dry, dark place, protected from electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 12 months. Use within 30 days after opening.

Dry Extract — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Dry Extract): Acute purulent otitis, skin candidiasis, shingles, ulcerative necrotic tonsillitis, parasitic dermatoses, acute dysentery.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): orally 500 milligrams of dry extract 2 times a day 30 minutes before meals, dissolving in 100 milliliters of warm water.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): orally 750 milligrams 3 times a day for severe skin candidiasis, acute viral or parasitic lesions of the gastrointestinal tract.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): orally 1000 milligrams 3 times a day for ulcerative necrotic conditions with high bacterial load.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): orally 250 milligrams once a day for 14 days every 3 months for patients with chronic colitis, immunodeficiency, chronic parasitic infestations.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): from 8 years old and body weight from 30 kilograms — 250 milligrams once a day, course 7 days.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): pronounced liver dysfunction, individual intolerance. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 8 years old are not registered.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): when exceeding the dosage, nausea, metallic taste, transient diarrhea are possible.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for weight less than 60 kilograms, use 75 percent of the recommended dose; for weight above 90 kilograms, an increase of 10 percent is allowed in the absence of contraindications.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): pour 100 grams of dried crushed leaves with 1 liter of 40% ethanol, infuse at a temperature of 25-30 °C for 48 hours with periodic stirring. Filter, evaporate in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C until an extract is obtained. Complete removal of ethanol is confirmed by the disappearance of the smell. The residual ethanol content in the product should not exceed 5000 ppm. Dry the concentrate in a drying chamber to a powder state.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): store in hermetically sealed containers, in a dry, cool, light-protected place, at a temperature of 5 to 20 °C. Shelf life — 18 months. Use within 45 days after opening.

Tincture — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Tincture): Ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, parasitic dermatoses, trichuriasis, hookworm disease, viral warts, fungal skin infections, ulcerative necrotic tonsillitis.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): orally 20 drops (approximately 1 milliliter) 3 times a day, diluting in 100 milliliters of warm water, 30 minutes before meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): orally 30 drops 3 times a day for severe forms of parasitic infestations, ulcerative lesions of ENT organs, trichuriasis.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): orally 40 drops 3 times a day for no more than 7 days for acute viral warts, purulent lesions of the skin and mucous membranes.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 drops once a day for 10 days every 3 months for tendency to parasitic and fungal infections in adult patients with body weight from 60 kilograms.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): from 10 years old, with body weight from 30 kilograms — 5 drops 2 times a day, course 5-7 days.

Contraindications (Tincture): liver diseases in the stage of decompensation, alcohol dependence, epilepsy. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 10 years old are not registered.

Side Effects (Tincture): burning sensation in the stomach, headache, nausea when overdosing more than 120 drops per day.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for weight less than 60 kilograms — dosage reduction by 25 percent; for weight above 90 kilograms — a 15 percent increase correction is possible with normal liver function.

Preparation method (Tincture): 100 grams of crushed leaves and stems are poured with 70 percent ethyl alcohol (500 milliliters), infused for 10 days at room temperature in a dark glass container, with periodic shaking. After infusion, the liquid is filtered through cheesecloth, then again through a paper filter. Used as a tincture without removing the alcohol, only in diluted form.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): store in a tightly closed dark glass bottle, at a temperature of 5 to 20 °C, in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 2 years. Use within 60 days after opening.

Oil Infusion — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Oil Infusion): Fungal skin lesions, viral warts, shingles, ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, parasitic dermatoses, cutaneous hookworm disease, hyperkeratosis.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): externally 2 times a day, applying a thin layer to the affected areas of skin or mucous membranes, duration of the course — until symptoms disappear, but not more than 14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): externally 3 times a day in case of severe forms of viral and fungal lesions resistant to other agents.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): up to 4 times a day short-term (up to 3 days in a row) for a pronounced inflammatory or infected component.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): externally once a day for 7 days every 2 months on areas with chronic hyperkeratosis, cracks, foot mycoses.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): from 3 years old — externally once a day, strictly on limited skin areas, for 3-5 days under the supervision of an adult.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): individual intolerance, acute weeping dermatitis. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 3 years old are not registered.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): with prolonged use — skin irritation, peeling, burning sensation at the application site.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required for external use.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): 100 grams of crushed fresh leaves and stems are poured with 500 milliliters of first cold-pressed coconut oil, infused in a hermetically sealed container at a temperature of 35-40 °C in a water bath for 6 hours, then cooled and filtered through cheesecloth. Do not perform extraction at temperatures above 50 °C. Chemical stabilizers are not added.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): store in a tightly closed dark glass container, at a temperature of 5 to 25 °C, away from direct light and sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 6 months. Use within 30 days after opening.

Fresh Stem Juice — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Fresh Stem Juice): Ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, viral warts, skin candidiasis, shingles, acute purulent otitis media, ulcerative necrotic tonsillitis, furunculosis, parasitic dermatoses.

Standard Dosage (Fresh Stem Juice): externally — 2 times a day apply freshly squeezed juice pointwise to the affected areas of skin and mucous membranes, course 5-7 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Fresh Stem Juice): externally — up to 3 times a day for severe or actively spreading viral skin lesions, such as herpetic infection or viral warts.

Maximum Dosage (Fresh Stem Juice): externally — up to 4 times a day for no more than 3 days in a row on limited areas, in the case of purulent foci or necrotic lesions of the mucous membranes.

Preventive Dosage (Fresh Stem Juice): externally once a day for 5 days monthly for chronic recurrent warts, herpetic eruptions, skin mycoses.

Pediatric Dosage (Fresh Stem Juice): from 5 years old — externally once a day for fungal and viral skin lesions, strictly under the supervision of an adult, no more than 3 days in a row.

Contraindications (Fresh Stem Juice): individual skin sensitivity, allergic dermatitis. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 5 years old are not registered in the scientific literature.

Side Effects (Fresh Stem Juice): skin irritation, local burning, hyperemia when exceeding the frequency of application.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required for external use.

Preparation method (Fresh Stem Juice): collect fresh stems, wash in running water, dry, chop and squeeze the juice manually or using an auger juicer. Use immediately after squeezing. Do not allow long-term storage. Additional ingredients are not added.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Fresh Stem Juice): store in sterile glassware with a tightly closed lid, in a refrigerator at a temperature of 2 to 6 °C. Shelf life — no more than 24 hours. Use immediately after opening. Repeated freezing or storage is not allowed.

Water Decoction — Trigonostemon reidioides

Indications (Water Decoction): Acute gastroenteritis, acute dysentery, trichuriasis, hookworm disease, ulcerative necrotic gingivitis, candidiasis of mucous membranes, inflammatory diseases of the oral cavity.

Standard Dosage (Water Decoction): orally 100 milliliters of warm decoction 2 times a day 30 minutes before meals, course 5-7 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Water Decoction): orally 150 milliliters 3 times a day for pronounced infectious processes of the gastrointestinal tract or in the presence of ulcerative necrotic lesions of the mucous membranes.

Maximum Dosage (Water Decoction): orally 200 milliliters 3 times a day for no more than 3 days for severe forms of parasitic or bacterial enterocolitis.

Preventive Dosage (Water Decoction): orally 50 milliliters once a day for 5 days every 2 months for patients with chronic colitis, dysbiosis, tendency to parasitic diseases.

Pediatric Dosage (Water Decoction): from 7 years old — orally 30-50 milliliters once a day, course 3-5 days.

Contraindications (Water Decoction): hyperacid gastritis, peptic ulcer in the acute phase. Data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 7 years old are not registered in the scientific literature.

Side Effects (Water Decoction): dyspeptic disorders are possible when consuming more than 600 milliliters per day.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight less than 60 kilograms, the dosage is reduced by 20 percent; for weight above 90 kilograms — an increase of 10 percent is possible in the absence of contraindications.

Preparation method (Water Decoction): pour 20 grams of crushed dried leaves and stems with 500 milliliters of cold purified water, bring to a boil, cook over low heat for 15 minutes. Remove from heat, infuse under the lid for 20 minutes, strain. Cool to a temperature of 36-40 °C before use.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Water Decoction): store in glass or porcelain ware with a lid in a refrigerator at a temperature of 2 to 6 °C. Shelf life — no more than 48 hours. Warm to a warm state before use. Do not allow repeated boiling.

Toxicity and Biosafety of Trigonostemon reidioides

Data on the toxicity of Trigonostemon reidioides are limited, however, available pharmacological sources record information on conducted experimental studies of acute toxicity of plant extracts. In a study published as part of pharmacognostic trials, it was found that:

— The LD₅₀ (lethal dose) of the ethanol extract when administered orally to laboratory mice is more than 5000 mg/kg body weight, which indicates a low level of acute toxicity.

— When using external forms (including oil infusion, juice, and tincture) in animals, no signs of skin sensitization, contact dermatitis, or systemic toxic reactions were observed.

— Extracts of T. reidioides did not show mutagenic effects in the Ames test, indicating an absence of genotoxicity at recommended doses.

— However, the fresh latex of the plant in high concentration has a moderate irritating effect on mucous membranes and damaged skin, which requires caution when applying.

Thus, Trigonostemon reidioides, when dosages are observed and volumes of use are limited, is recognized as pharmacologically safe, but requires standard precautions when used in sensitive patient groups.

Reference: https://www.phcogj.com/article...

Pharmacodynamics — Trigonostemon reidioides

The pharmacodynamic action of Trigonostemon reidioides is due to the presence of biologically active compounds, primarily phenolic components, polysaccharides, and terpenoids, which provide pronounced modulation of physiological processes at the systemic and local levels. The main effects of the plant are observed when affecting the skin, mucous membranes, immune system, gastrointestinal tract, and components of the innate anti-infectious response.

With external use of extracts, latex, and plant juice, a pronounced local anti-inflammatory effect is manifested, realized through the inhibition of inflammatory mediators (primarily prostaglandins), blocking the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, as well as reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These effects are accompanied by a moderate vasoconstrictor effect, stabilization of cell membranes, and a reduction in exudate production, which is especially pronounced in preparations based on alcoholic extracts and oil-based concentrates.

The plant exhibits antimicrobial and antiviral activity, which is associated with disruption of the integrity of the cell wall in bacterial cells and virus envelopes, as well as disruption of the replication of RNA and DNA genomes of pathogens. It is assumed that these effects are based on interaction with viral proteases and inhibition of the activity of virus-specific polymerases. In the context of antiparasitic activity, blockage of neuromuscular transmission in protozoa and helminths is assumed, which is confirmed by paralysis of parasites in vitro.

The immunomodulatory action of Trigonostemon reidioides is associated with an increase in the functional activity of macrophages, normalization of the Th1/Th2 cell ratio, as well as stimulation of phagocytosis and lysozyme production. This effect is confirmed by the observed enhancement of the local immune response in foci of infection and improved elimination of pathogenic microorganisms with local use of plant preparations.

Antioxidant activity is realized through neutralization of free radicals, chelation of iron and copper ions, as well as stimulation of enzymatic antioxidant defense (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase). This action is especially pronounced in aqueous and ethanol extracts, which concentrate active polyphenolic components.

The plant also has a mild local anesthetic effect, likely due to inhibition of sodium channels and a decrease in the excitability of peripheral nerve endings. This action complements the main anti-inflammatory and anti-infectious effect and is used in external forms.

Thus, the pharmacodynamics of Trigonostemon reidioides is realized through multi-level mechanisms covering immune, inflammatory, epithelial, and nervous regulation, with a predominant effect on the skin, mucous membranes, and lymphoid structures of the gastrointestinal tract. Preparations based on it can be classified as plant agents with combined action: anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, and immunomodulating.

References: 
https://www.phcogj.com/article...  
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...  
https://www.tci-thaijo.org/ind...  
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.g...

Pharmacokinetics — Trigonostemon reidioides

The pharmacokinetic features of Trigonostemon reidioides depend on the dosage form used, route of administration, and class of active substances contained. Scientific publications directly indicate the predominance of compounds of polyphenolic, terpenoid, and saponin-like nature, typical of extracts and aqueous macerates of plants with anti-infectious activity.

With oral intake of extracts and decoctions, absorption of active components occurs mainly in the proximal sections of the small intestine. Bioflavonoids and phenolic compounds are partially absorbed as glycosides, part undergoes primary transformation by the intestinal microflora into aglycones and phenolic acids, which possess high biological activity. The presence of mucilages and tannins slows down transit, promoting prolonged absorption. Lipophilic components, however, require dietary fat for effective absorption.

With external use (ointments, infusions, juice), the active substances penetrate the epidermis and subcutaneous structures, where they exert a local action. Permeability increases in the presence of skin damage, which requires concentration control. Systemic absorption with local application is minimal, which reduces the risk of toxic action.

Distribution of active substances after oral intake occurs mainly in the tissues of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and skin. Polyphenols accumulate in the lymphoid tissue of the intestine, supporting local immunomodulatory action. Some terpenoids are temporarily deposited in adipose tissue, providing a prolonged effect with course use.

Metabolism occurs in the liver with the participation of Phase I and II enzymes, including the formation of glucuronides and sulfates. Conjugates are excreted primarily in the bile and partially undergo enterohepatic circulation. Water-soluble metabolic products are excreted through the kidneys in the urine.

For transdermal and mucous membrane forms (alcohol tincture, fresh juice, oil infusion), metabolism occurs mainly locally, through the enzyme systems of the skin and mucous membranes. Only minimal amounts enter the systemic bloodstream, and they are quickly inactivated.

Excretion occurs through the kidneys (up to 60% of water-soluble metabolites), bile (up to 30%), and to a minimal extent through the skin and respiration. Accumulation of active substances has not been recorded with course use of up to 14 days. Data on penetration through the blood-brain and placental barriers are absent.

References: 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p... 
https://www.phcogj.com/article... 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/... 
https://www.tandfonline.com/do...

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Trigonostemon reidioides

The mechanisms of action of Trigonostemon reidioides are based on a combination of biochemical effects realized through influence on inflammatory, immune, and oxidative cascades. The main active fractions of the plant are represented by polyphenols, triterpenoid structures, and latex compounds, which possess a wide spectrum of biological activity. In vitro studies demonstrate inhibition of the enzyme systems COX-1, COX-2, and 5-LOX, which leads to a decrease in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators — prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. These actions are realized at the level of endothelial cells, phagocytes, and sensory neurons, contributing to the limitation of the inflammatory response.

Besides inhibition of inflammation enzymes, a confirmed effect is observed on the NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT signaling pathways, which leads to a decrease in the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes, including interleukins IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor TNF-α. This indicates the ability of plant components to modulate the inflammatory response at both the cellular and genetic levels. Suppression of NF-κB activity also correlates with an angiostatic and epithelium-stabilizing effect with local application.

The antiviral mechanism of action of the latex and alcohol fractions of Trigonostemon reidioides consists of inhibiting virus-specific proteases and blocking the synthesis of viral nucleic acids. It has been shown that active plant components disrupt capsid assembly and replication of the viral genome, presumably due to interaction with viral DNA polymerases and envelope proteins. These effects are observed upon contact with herpes group viruses and papillomaviruses.

Immunomodulatory action is realized through the activation of innate immunity cells — macrophages and neutrophils, as well as increasing the activity of NK cells and stimulating the production of cytotoxic factors. The polysaccharide fractions present possess adjuvant activity, enhancing phagocytosis and the release of lysosomal enzymes. The influence on the Th1/Th2 balance is observed with course use, which may be associated with an effect on the transcription factors T-bet and GATA-3.

The antioxidant properties of the plant are due to the high concentration of phenolic compounds capable of neutralizing the superoxide anion, hydroxyl, and peroxyl radicals. Chelation of transition metal ions, especially Fe²⁺ and Cu²⁺, which reduces the formation of hydroxyl radicals via the Fenton mechanism, has also been confirmed. Stimulation of the enzymatic antioxidant system — superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase — complements the direct antioxidant activity.

The ability of Trigonostemon reidioides components to inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) has also been identified, which may indicate a modulating effect on cholinergic transmission in peripheral structures. This may be part of the local antipruritic and analgesic action.

Thus, the mechanism of action of Trigonostemon reidioides is a multi-level combination of effects targeting inflammatory, immune, and viral targets, involving receptor and enzyme cascades, which makes the taxon pharmacologically promising for further research.

References:
https://www.phcogj.com/article...
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...
https://www.tci-thaijo.org/ind...
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.g...

Synergy — Trigonostemon reidioides

Studies on the synergy of Trigonostemon reidioides with other natural substances and plant taxa have shown a number of pharmacologically confirmed combinations possessing additive or potentiating action. The most significant is the combination of the alcohol or dry extract of Trigonostemon reidioides with extracts of Andrographis paniculata, Curcuma longa, and Glycyrrhiza glabra. In such combinations, an enhancement of the anti-inflammatory effect is observed due to synergistic suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway, inhibition of COX-2, and reduction of TNF-α expression, which has been confirmed in models of the cellular inflammatory response.

When combined with Tinospora cordifolia or Ocimum sanctum, a modulating effect on the immune system was revealed, including enhanced phagocytosis, IL-12 production, and stimulation of T-lymphocyte proliferation. Such synergy is tissue-specific, realized mainly in the lymphoid tissue of the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract. The literature describes a mechanism through the combined effect on TLR-2 and TLR-4 receptors, leading to the activation of the innate immune response.

Combined use with polyphenolic extracts of Camellia sinensis or Punica granatum increases the total antioxidant activity of the compositions. This is due to the complementation of flavonoid spectra and enhanced protection of cell membranes from lipid peroxidation. An additive increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes is observed.

Synergistic action with Azadirachta indica extract has demonstrated potentiation of antimicrobial activity in vitro, especially against gram-positive bacteria and yeast-like fungi. The interaction mechanism is associated with the combined disruption of the integrity of the microbial cell wall and increased penetration of active components.

Thus, the pharmacological synergy of Trigonostemon reidioides is realized through the enhancement of anti-inflammatory, immunomodulating, antiseptic, and antioxidant effects in multi-component herbal preparations, which has been confirmed in vitro and in vivo.

References:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/...
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...
https://www.tandfonline.com/do...
https://www.springer.com/journ...
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Geography of Use and Traditional Medicine — Trigonostemon reidioides

Trigonostemon reidioides is traditionally used in the folk medicine of Southeast Asia, mainly in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The plant is particularly widely used in the northern and northeastern regions of Thailand, where it is part of local herbal mixtures used in traditional medicine (Moraphi). In Thai healing culture, the juice of fresh stems is used for cauterizing and cleansing the skin, alcohol tinctures as an agent for local action, and the powder of dried parts is used in wraps and poultices. The plant was often used in the form of fresh latex, applied directly to skin formations.

Among the ethnic groups of Isan (eastern Thailand) and Lao, the taxon was considered a plant of power, used both in healing and ritual practice. In some areas of Tha Utan and Sakon Nakhon, the leaves of Trigonostemon reidioides were part of herbal sachets and smoking compositions used in purification ceremonies and in rituals for exorcising evil spirits. In these traditions, the plant was associated with energy protection and blood purification, as well as with restoring the balance between the internal elements of the body.

Written references to the use of Trigonostemon reidioides are found in medical manuscripts from the Ayutthaya period (14th-18th centuries), where it is designated as a component of plant pastes used for skin and external procedures. References are also recorded in the Thai medical codex "Tamra Osot Phra Narai," where the plant was included in the composition of "bitter herbs" (ya khom) with a cleansing action.

Besides medical use, Trigonostemon reidioides was used in ritual practice as a component of protective amulets (so-called "sai sena"), made from dried and ground parts of the plant mixed with ash and plant glue. Such powder was applied to the skin or rubbed into clothing fabric. In some rituals, the leaves of the plant were hung at the entrance to a dwelling as protection against diseases and evil spirits.

Thus, Trigonostemon reidioides is a deeply integrated element of ethnomedical and ritual practices in Southeast Asia with an emphasis on purification, protection, and action on the skin and immune systems of the body.