Lagenaria siceraria (fruit)

Lagenaria siceraria (fruit)

Product Name: Лагенария обыкновенная, Lagenaria siceraria, Flaschenkürbis, Calabaza de peregrino, Calebasse bouteille, القرع القرعي, น้ำเต้า, Lagenariya, Лагенария, Балдырган, Лагенария, Лагенария, Butelio moliūgas, Pudeļu ķirbis, Лагенарія, Лагенария, דלעת הבקבוק

Synonyms: лагенария, калабас, бутылочная тыква, индийский кабачок, calabash, bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, opo squash, Lauki, dudhi, Flaschenkürbis, Kalebasse, Kürbisflasche, calabaza de botella, calabaza blanca, Calebasse à fleurs blanches, gourde calebasse, القرع الزجاجي, القرع الأبيض, น้ำเต้าขาว, น้ำเต้าขวด

Parts Used: fruit, seeds, leaves, roots, fruit peel, flowers

Main Indications for the Use of Lagenaria siceraria: arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, chronic constipation, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, chronic colitis, chronic cystitis, nephrolithiasis, chronic bronchitis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic heart failure, hyperuricemia, chronic cholecystitis.

Use of Lagenaria siceraria in Mixtures and Complexes: viral hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, acute respiratory viral infections, bronchial asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis, iron deficiency anemia, chronic renal failure, oncopathologies of the digestive tract, trophic ulcers, chronic venous insufficiency, dermatitis of various etiologies.

Pharmacological Properties of Lagenaria siceraria: antioxidant, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, diuretic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, spasmolytic, wound-healing, laxative, diuretic, sedative, cardioprotective, antianemic, uricosuric, antipyretic.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Lagenaria siceraria

Powder — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Powder): arterial hypertension, hyperlipidemia, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic gastritis, chronic colitis, chronic cystitis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, hyperuricemia.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 2–3 grams of powder 2 times a day, orally, with warm water or milk, course 21–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 4–5 grams of powder 2–3 times a day for pronounced hyperlipidemia, obesity, gout.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 6 grams of powder 3 times a day, allowed for no more than 14 days for class III obesity and severe hyperuricemia.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 1–2 grams of powder once a day, in courses of 14 days every 2 months, for chronic gastritis, mild hyperlipidemia, tendency to hyperuricemia, persons over 45 years of age with metabolic disorders.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): from 7 years of age and body weight from 25 kg — 0.5–1 gram of powder 1–2 times a day, course 7–10 days, under medical supervision.

Contraindications (Powder): individual intolerance, acute gastroenteritis. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 7 years of age are not registered.

Side Effects (Powder): in case of overdose — diarrhea, intestinal spasms.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Powder): up to 60 kg — reduce dosage by 20%; over 90 kg — increase by 15%.

Preparation Method (Powder): Take ripe bottle gourd fruits — 1000 grams. Peel, remove seeds. Cut into small pieces and dry in a drying cabinet at a temperature of 45 °C until residual moisture is not more than 8%. Grind into powder in a mill to a fraction of less than 0.5 mm. Sift through sieve No. 0.5. Store in a tightly closed container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): store in a dry, dark place at a temperature of 15–25 °C, in an airtight container, away from sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 60 days.

Dry Extract — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Dry Extract): hyperlipidemia, arterial hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic colitis, chronic cystitis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic cholecystitis, hyperuricemia.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 250–500 mg of dry extract 2 times a day, orally, after meals, course 21–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 750 mg 2 times a day for pronounced hyperlipidemia and gout.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 1000 mg 2 times a day for no more than 14 days for class III obesity and severe hyperuricemia.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 250 mg once a day, course 14 days every 3 months, for chronic gastritis, mild hyperlipidemia, persons over 45 years of age with metabolic disorders.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): from 10 years of age and body weight from 30 kg — 100–250 mg 1–2 times a day, course 7–10 days.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): individual intolerance, acute gastroenteritis. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 10 years of age are not registered.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): in case of overdose — nausea, diarrhea, intestinal spasms.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Dry Extract): up to 60 kg — reduce dosage by 20%; over 90 kg — increase by 15%.

Preparation Method (Dry Extract): Take dried bottle gourd fruit pulp — 1000 grams. Grind to a fraction of 1–2 mm. Carry out extraction with 70% ethanol in a ratio of 1:10 at a temperature of 40 °C for 8 hours. Strain, filter. Remove the solvent by evaporation in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C until the ethanol odor completely disappears. The residual ethanol content in the finished product should be no higher than 500 ppm. Dry the extract in a vacuum drying cabinet at 40 °C to a humidity of not more than 5%. Grind to a powder.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): store in a dry, dark place at a temperature of 15–25 °C, in an airtight container, away from sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 90 days.

Tincture — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Tincture): arterial hypertension, hyperlipidemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic gastritis with reduced secretion, chronic colitis, chronic cystitis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, hyperuricemia, chronic cholecystitis.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): 15–20 drops (0.8–1 ml) 2 times a day, orally, after meals, course 21–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 25–30 drops (1.2–1.5 ml) 2 times a day for pronounced hyperlipidemia, gout, hyperuricemia.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): 40 drops (2 ml) 2 times a day, no more than 10 days, for severe forms of hyperlipidemia and gout.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10–15 drops (0.5–0.8 ml) once a day, course 14 days every 3 months for chronic gastritis, mild hyperlipidemia, persons over 50 years of age with metabolic disorders.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): not recommended for children under 14 years of age due to ethanol content.

Contraindications (Tincture): individual intolerance, acute gastroenteritis, alcoholism, severe liver failure. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered, but use is not recommended.

Side Effects (Tincture): in case of overdose — nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, arterial hypotension.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Tincture): up to 60 kg — reduce dosage by 15%; over 90 kg — increase by 10%.

Preparation Method (Tincture): Take dried ground bottle gourd fruit pulp — 100 grams. Pour 500 ml of 40% ethanol. Infuse in a hermetically sealed glass container at room temperature in a dark place for 14 days, shaking daily. Strain, filter through cheesecloth and paper filter.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 15–20 °C, away from direct sunlight and heat sources. Shelf life — 36 months. After opening, use within 6 months.

Oil Infusion — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Oil Infusion): chronic gastritis, chronic colitis, chronic cystitis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, hyperuricemia, chronic cholecystitis, trophic ulcers, dermatitis of various etiologies, burn injuries of the skin, chronic venous insufficiency.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): orally — 5 ml 2 times a day, externally — apply in a thin layer 2 times a day to the affected areas of the skin, course 21–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): orally — 7 ml 2 times a day, externally — 3 times a day for trophic ulcers, chronic dermatitis, pronounced hyperuricemia.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): orally — 10 ml 2 times a day, no more than 14 days, for severe inflammatory lesions of the gastrointestinal tract and skin.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): orally — 3 ml once a day, course 14 days every 2 months, for chronic gastritis, mild hyperuricemia, persons over 45 years of age.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): from 5 years of age — orally 1–2 ml 1–2 times a day, externally — as indicated, course 7–10 days.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): individual intolerance, acute gastroenteritis. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): in case of overdose — diarrhea, nausea, lowering of blood pressure.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oil Infusion): up to 60 kg — reduce dosage by 20%; over 90 kg — increase by 15%.

Preparation Method (Oil Infusion): Take dried ground bottle gourd fruit pulp — 200 grams. Pour 800 ml of coconut oil, heat in a water bath to a temperature of 45–50 °C and hold for 4 hours, stirring occasionally. Cool, filter through cheesecloth and paper filter.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 10–20 °C, protecting from direct light and heat sources. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 90 days.

Ointment — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Ointment): trophic ulcers, dermatitis of various etiologies, burn injuries of the skin, chronic venous insufficiency, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, neurodermatitis, psoriasis, eczema.

Standard Dosage (Ointment): apply in a thin layer to the affected areas of the skin 2 times a day, course 14–21 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): apply in a thick layer under an occlusive dressing 2–3 times a day for trophic ulcers, second-degree burns, pronounced inflammatory dermatoses.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): up to 4 applications per day to limited areas of the skin, no more than 10 days in a row, for severe skin lesions.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): apply in a thin layer once a day for 7–10 days a month for chronic dry skin, tendency to cracks and inflammatory reactions, persons with chronic dermatoses in remission.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): from 3 years of age — apply in a thin layer once a day for 5–7 days for mild skin inflammations.

Contraindications (Ointment): individual intolerance, open purulent wounds, active bacterial skin infection. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Ointment): in case of overdose — local skin irritation, itching, redness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ointment): not required.

Preparation Method (Ointment): Take dry bottle gourd fruit powder — 20 grams, coconut oil — 70 grams, beeswax — 10 grams. Melt the coconut oil in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C, add the bottle gourd powder, stir for 30 minutes. Add the beeswax, stir until completely dissolved, pour into sterile jars, cool.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): store in a tightly closed dark glass container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, away from heat sources and direct light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 60 days.

Cream — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Cream): dermatitis of various etiologies, dry skin, skin cracks, neurodermatitis, psoriasis, eczema, mild burn injuries of the skin, skin irritation after sunburn.

Standard Dosage (Cream): apply in a thin layer to the skin 1–2 times a day, course 14–21 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): apply in a thick layer 2–3 times a day for pronounced dryness, peeling, and skin inflammation.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): up to 4 applications per day to limited areas of the skin, no more than 10 days in a row, for severe inflammatory skin conditions.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): apply in a thin layer once a day for 7–10 days a month for chronic dry skin, tendency to cracks, persons with chronic dermatoses in remission.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): from 1 year of age — apply in a thin layer once a day for mild skin inflammations, course 5–7 days.

Contraindications (Cream): individual intolerance, active bacterial skin infection. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Cream): in case of overdose — local skin irritation, itching, redness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cream): not required.

Preparation Method (Cream): Take coconut oil — 60 grams, bottle gourd flower hydrolate — 30 grams, bottle gourd fruit powder — 5 grams, emulsifier (beeswax) — 5 grams. Melt the coconut oil in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C, add the beeswax, stir until completely dissolved. In a separate container, heat the hydrolate to 40 °C. Combine the oil and water phases, stirring constantly until a homogeneous emulsion forms. Add the bottle gourd powder, mix thoroughly, cool and pour into sterile jars.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): store in a tightly closed container at a temperature of 5–15 °C, in the dark, away from heat sources. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Gel — Lagenaria siceraria

Indications (Gel): trophic ulcers, burn injuries of the skin of I–II degree, dermatitis of various etiologies, eczema, neurodermatitis, psoriasis, chronic venous insufficiency, edema of soft tissues of inflammatory origin, wound defects with slow epithelialization.

Standard Dosage (Gel): apply in a thin layer to the affected area of the skin 2 times a day, course 14–21 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Gel): apply in a thin layer 3 times a day for trophic ulcers, second-degree burns, pronounced inflammatory skin processes.

Maximum Dosage (Gel): up to 4 applications per day to limited areas of the skin, no more than 10 days in a row, for severe inflammatory skin conditions or with delayed wound healing.

Preventive Dosage (Gel): apply in a thin layer once a day for 7–10 days a month for chronic dry skin, tendency to cracks, microcirculation disorders in patients with chronic venous insufficiency in remission.

Pediatric Dosage (Gel): from 3 years of age — apply in a thin layer once a day for 5–7 days for mild skin inflammations or minor first-degree burns.

Contraindications (Gel): individual intolerance, deep infected wounds, open purulent processes. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Gel): in case of overdose — local skin irritation, itching, erythema, short-term burning.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Gel): not required.

Preparation Method (Gel): Take bottle gourd flower hydrolate — 80 grams, vegetable glycerin — 5 grams, bottle gourd fruit powder — 5 grams, gelling agent (xanthan gum) — 1.5 grams, coconut oil — 8 grams, beeswax — 0.5 grams. Melt the coconut oil and beeswax in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C, combine with glycerin. Heat the hydrolate to 40 °C, dissolve the xanthan gum in it until a homogeneous structure is achieved. Combine the water and oil phases, mix thoroughly, add the bottle gourd powder, mix again until complete homogenization. Cool and pour into sterile tubes.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Gel): store in a tightly closed container at a temperature of 5–15 °C, in the dark, away from heat sources and direct light. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Toxicity and Biosafety — Lagenaria siceraria

Acute toxicity studies of bottle gourd fruits and seeds have shown that upon oral administration to laboratory animals of the extract obtained from the fruit pulp, the LD₅₀ value exceeds 5000 mg/kg body weight, which indicates extremely low acute toxicity and a high biosafety profile. The seeds and aqueous extracts of the plant also showed no signs of toxic effects when administered at doses up to 2000 mg/kg. With long-term use in therapeutic doses, no cumulative toxic effect or significant changes in liver and kidney functions were detected. 

Reference: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep....

Pharmacodynamics — Lagenaria siceraria

The pharmacodynamic properties of Lagenaria siceraria are determined by a complex of biologically active compounds, among which triterpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, sterols, amino acids, pectins, and phenolic acids stand out. These components provide a wide range of physiological effects at the systemic and local levels. At the level of the digestive system, fruit extracts and powders can exert a mild spasmolytic and modulating effect on the tone of smooth muscles, as well as exhibit a cytoprotective effect by stabilizing cell membranes and reducing the activity of inflammatory mediators.

With regard to the cardiovascular system, properties have been identified that contribute to the normalization of vascular tone, reduction of lipid peroxidation intensity, and stabilization of endothelial function. These effects are mediated by the antioxidant activity of flavonoids, which interact with reactive oxygen species, as well as by an influence on the regulation of nitric oxide in the vascular wall.

At the level of the urinary system, active substances demonstrate a mild diuretic effect associated with the modulation of tubular reabsorption and water-salt metabolism. The composition of phenolic compounds and potassium salts contains components capable of maintaining normal osmotic balance.

The immunomodulatory effect is manifested through the regulation of the activity of macrophages, neutrophils, and T-lymphocytes. Experimental data indicate the ability of polysaccharide fractions to alter the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby regulating the intensity of the inflammatory reaction.

For the nervous system, a mild sedative and anxiolytic effect has been established, presumably associated with an influence on GABAergic and serotonergic neurotransmission. This is accompanied by a decrease in the excitability of central structures and normalization of the functional state of the autonomic nervous system.

In the dermatological aspect, Lagenaria extracts exhibit local anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and regenerative effects, promoting accelerated epithelialization and restoration of the barrier properties of the skin.

Overall, the pharmacodynamic activity of Lagenaria siceraria encompasses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, immunomodulatory, spasmolytic, mild sedative, and trophostimulating effects, which is confirmed by experimental and clinical-pharmacological studies.

References: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.... https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food...

Pharmacokinetics — Lagenaria siceraria

Upon oral administration, the active components of Lagenaria siceraria, including polyphenols, flavonoids, and pectins, undergo partial absorption in the small intestine. Bioavailability depends on the form of the preparation: extracts are characterized by a higher absorption rate compared to powder or whole parts of the plant, which is associated with a greater degree of extraction of low-molecular-weight fractions. High-molecular-weight polysaccharides and dietary fibers are partially metabolized by the microflora of the large intestine to form short-chain fatty acids involved in the regulation of local and systemic metabolic processes.

With transdermal application (ointment, cream, gel, oil infusion), absorption is limited by the stratum corneum of the epidermis but is enhanced in the presence of inflammatory changes or skin damage. Lipophilic fractions, including sterols and triterpenoids, penetrate the superficial layers of the dermis, where they exert local action and partially enter the systemic circulation.

The distribution of active substances after systemic entry primarily covers the liver, kidneys, and vascular wall, as well as the skin with external application. The metabolism of flavonoids and phenolic acids occurs in the liver with the participation of conjugation reactions (glucuronidation, sulfation), which increases their hydrophilicity and facilitates excretion.

Excretion of metabolites occurs mainly in the urine and bile. Polysaccharide complexes and undigested fragments of cell walls are excreted through the intestines. Lipophilic components with external application can be deposited in the subcutaneous fat and slowly metabolized.

Routes of administration (oral, transdermal, through mucous membranes) affect the rate and completeness of absorption, but research data indicate the preservation of key effects with all forms of delivery, which is explained by the wide range of active components and their varying degrees of bioavailability.

References: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.... https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food...

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Lagenaria siceraria

The pharmacological activity of Lagenaria siceraria is due to a complex of biologically active substances, including triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, saponins, polysaccharides, and pectins. These compounds exhibit a multifaceted influence on molecular and cellular targets. Flavonoid components interact with the enzyme systems cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX), which leads to a decrease in the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes, suppressing the activity of inflammatory cascades. Polysaccharides and pectins exert a modulating effect on macrophages and neutrophils, influencing the production of cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), through inhibition of the NF-κB pathway and activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant cascade.

Triterpenoid and steroid fractions possess membrane-stabilizing properties, reducing cell membrane permeability and protecting endothelial cells from oxidative stress. They also modulate vascular tone through action on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which helps maintain normal vasomotor function. Phenolic acids, particularly chlorogenic and coumaric acids, inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes, affecting the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

At the level of the central nervous system, individual flavonoid components interact with GABA-A receptors and serotonin (5-HT1A) receptors, which is accompanied by a decrease in neuronal excitability and modulation of autonomic reactions. Saponins, which are part of the plant, exert a surface-active effect, contributing to improved bioavailability of other lipophilic compounds.

Collectively, these mechanisms form anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, vascular-modulating, and metabolically regulating effects, confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies.

References: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.... https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food...

Synergy — Lagenaria siceraria

Experimental data indicate a synergistic interaction of Lagenaria siceraria with other plant taxa and natural substances, enhancing its pharmacological potential. Combined use with Curcuma longa (turmeric) leads to potentiation of the anti-inflammatory effect due to simultaneous inhibition of COX-2 and NF-κB, as well as enhancement of antioxidant activity through co-activation of Nrf2-dependent pathways. The combination with Camellia sinensis (tea) exhibits an additive antioxidant effect due to the combined action of catechins and Lagenaria flavonoids on the neutralization of reactive oxygen species.

The combination with Zingiber officinale (ginger) enhances the modulation of inflammatory cytokines and reduces lipoxygenase activity, as confirmed by in vitro models of inflammation. Lagenaria seed extracts in combination with Nigella sativa (black cumin) exhibit synergy in modulating the immune response, likely through a combined effect on macrophages and T-lymphocytes.

A potentiating interaction with polyphenols of Vitis vinifera (grape) has also been noted, which enhances the stabilization of endothelial cells and reduces oxidative stress in the vascular wall. When used together with the essential oil of Ocimum sanctum (holy basil), a protective effect on cell membranes and an increase in resistance to lipid peroxidation are manifested.

All the listed combinations have confirmation in in vitro and in vivo studies, which allows considering Lagenaria as a promising component of multicomponent phytocompositions with a directed potentiating effect.

References: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep....  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food...  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phym...

Geography of Use and Traditional Medicine — Lagenaria siceraria

Lagenaria siceraria is known as a cultivated and medicinal plant in Asia, Africa, Europe, and America. Its traditional use traces back from the most ancient archaeological finds in Africa and South Asia (dating from the 8th–10th millennium BC) to modern ethnomedical practices. In China, India, and Southeast Asia, the fruits are used in traditional medicine in the form of decoctions, infusions, and juice, and the seeds as oil extracts. In the Indian Ayurvedic tradition and South Asian folk medicine, bottle gourd is used to prepare aqueous and milk decoctions, ointments and pastes, as well as in the form of fresh juice. In Thailand and Laos, applications in the form of wraps and local applications are known, including in combination with other plant components. In Africa, it was traditionally used as a vessel for storing liquids, a musical instrument, and an element of ritual utensils.

In the cultures of many peoples, bottle gourd had symbolic and ritual significance. In African tribal practices, the fruits served as amulets and talismans, sometimes used in purification rituals. Among some South American tribes, dried fruits served as smoking vessels or calabashes for drinking mate. In Japanese tradition, dried and lacquered fruits were used as sake vessels and were considered a symbol of prosperity. Among Slavic healers, it is mentioned in ancient herbalists as a plant suitable for making vessels and household items, less often as a component of healing mixtures.

Historical written mentions of bottle gourd are found in ancient sources — for example, in Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder, where it is described as a cultivated plant used for economic and medicinal purposes. Archaeobotanical finds of seeds and fruits confirm its spread along trade routes from Africa to Asia and Europe in the prehistoric period.