Ferula assa-foetida L

Ferula assa-foetida L

Product Name: Асафетида, Ferula assa-foetida, Asant, Asafétida, Asafétida, صمغ الأنجدان, หอมขม, Asafoetida, Ассафетида, Ассафетида, Əsəfətida, Ассафетида, Ferulas derva, Asafoetida, Асафетида, אספוטידה

Synonyms: Асафетида, ферула вонючая, ферула асса-фетида, асант, ханги, hing, asafetida, stinking gum, devil's dung, Teufelsdreck, Stinkasant, goma hedionda, asafétida, gomme puante, صمغ الأنجدان, صمغ الكريهة, หอมขม, เทพธาร, เทพธารหอม

Parts Used: resin, root, aerial shoots, leaves, seeds.

Main Indications for Ferula assa-foetida: flatulence, dyspepsia, chronic constipation, colitis, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, hypertension, hysterical neurosis, spasmophilia, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, helminthiasis, hypercholesterolemia, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pancreatitis.

Use of Ferula assa-foetida in Mixtures and Complexes: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hypothyroidism, type 2 diabetes, chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, ischemic heart disease, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, migraine.

Pharmacological Properties of Ferula assa-foetida: anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, hypotensive, mucolytic, expectorant, anticonvulsant, anthelmintic, sedative, immunostimulant, antitumor, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, anticoagulant, analgesic, bronchodilatory.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Ferula assa-foetida

Powder — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Powder): flatulence, dyspepsia, chronic constipation, colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pancreatitis, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, helminthiasis, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 200—300 milligrams twice daily after meals, taken with warm water.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 400 milligrams twice daily for pronounced flatulence, chronic pancreatitis, helminthiasis, hypercholesterolemia.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 1 gram per day; intake is permissible only in a short course of up to 7 days for severe chronic constipation, pronounced spastic colitis.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 100—150 milligrams once daily in courses of 14 days every 3 months for chronic gastritis, tendency to flatulence, hypercholesterolemia, stage I hypertension.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): For children from 6 years old and weighing at least 20 kg, 50—100 milligrams once daily, taken with warm water. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 6 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Powder): Individual intolerance, acute ulcerative lesions of the stomach and duodenum, severe hypotension. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 6 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Powder): Overdose may cause dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, irritation of the gastric mucosa, skin rash.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Powder): For body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 25%; for body weight above 90 kg, increase the dose by 25%.

Preparation method (Powder): Take 100 grams of Ferula assa-foetida resin, grind in a porcelain mortar to a homogeneous powder, sift through a sieve with a mesh size of 0.5 millimeters. Store in an airtight glass jar.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): Store in a dry, dark place at a temperature of 15—25 °C, away from sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening the package, use within 6 months.

Dry Extract — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Dry Extract): flatulence, dyspepsia, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pancreatitis, hypercholesterolemia, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, helminthiasis, hypertension.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 100—200 milligrams twice daily after meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 300 milligrams twice daily for pronounced irritable bowel syndrome, hypercholesterolemia, chronic pancreatitis.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 800 milligrams per day, in a short course of up to 10 days for severe flatulence and spastic colitis.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 50—100 milligrams once daily in courses of 14 days every 4 months for chronic gastritis, biliary dyskinesia.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): For children from 7 years old and weighing at least 25 kg, 25—50 milligrams once daily. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 7 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): Individual intolerance, peptic ulcer in the acute phase, severe hypotension. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 7 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): Overdose may cause increased intestinal peristalsis, abdominal cramps, dizziness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Dry Extract): For body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for body weight above 90 kg, increase the dose by 20%.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): Pour 200 grams of ground Ferula assa-foetida resin with 1000 milliliters of 70% ethanol (for extraction only, is not a component of the finished preparation), infuse for 7 days at a temperature of 20—25 °C, shaking periodically. Perform filtration, then evaporate the solvent in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to a dry residue. Completely remove the ethanol odor. Permissible residual content — no more than 50 ppm. Grind the obtained dry extract to a powdery state.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): Store in a tightly closed container, in a dry, light-protected place at a temperature of 15—25 °C. Shelf life — 36 months. After opening, use within 12 months.

Tincture — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Tincture): flatulence, dyspepsia, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pancreatitis, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, hypercholesterolemia, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, helminthiasis, hypertension.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): 15—20 drops twice daily after meals, diluted in 50 milliliters of warm water.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 25 drops twice daily for pronounced flatulence, chronic pancreatitis, bronchial asthma.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): 60 drops per day for severe intestinal spasmodic pain and strong bronchospastic reaction, course not more than 10 days.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 drops once daily for 14 days every 4 months for chronic gastritis, hypercholesterolemia, stage I hypertension.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): For children from 12 years old and weighing at least 40 kg, 5—10 drops once daily, diluted in water. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 12 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Tincture): Individual intolerance, peptic ulcer in the acute phase, alcoholism, severe liver damage, epilepsy. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 12 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Tincture): Overdose may cause dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, irritation of the gastric mucosa.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Tincture): For body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for body weight above 90 kg, increase the dose by 20%.

Preparation method (Tincture): Pour 100 grams of ground Ferula assa-foetida resin with 500 milliliters of 70% ethanol (ethanol is used for extraction only, is not a component of the finished preparation). Infuse for 14 days at a temperature of 20—25 °C in a tightly closed container, shaking daily. Perform filtration, then evaporate the ethanol in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C or by vacuum evaporation to a residual content of no more than 50 ppm. Store the concentrate in a dark glass container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): Store in a tightly closed dark glass container at a temperature of 15—25 °C, in a light-protected place. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 6 months.

Oil Infusion — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Oil Infusion): flatulence, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, hypertension, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, chronic pancreatitis, helminthiasis.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): 1 teaspoon (5 milliliters) twice daily orally or applied topically to the affected area 1—2 times daily.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): 7 milliliters twice daily for chronic constipation, pronounced flatulence, intestinal spasms.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): 20 milliliters per day orally, course not more than 7 days for severe intestinal spasms.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): 3 milliliters once daily in courses of 14 days every 3 months for chronic gastritis, hypercholesterolemia, stage I hypertension.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): For children from 8 years old and weighing at least 25 kg, 1 milliliter 1—2 times daily. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 8 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): Individual intolerance, acute cholecystitis, acute pancreatitis, severe hypotension. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 8 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): Overdose may cause stool disorder, nausea, skin rash.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oil Infusion): For body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 25%; for body weight above 90 kg, increase the dose by 25%.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): Place 20 grams of ground Ferula assa-foetida resin in a glass jar, pour 100 milliliters of coconut oil (previously melted at a temperature of 40—45 °C). Infuse for 14 days at a temperature of 20—25 °C, shaking daily. Perform filtration through gauze, store in a dark glass bottle.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): Store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 15—20 °C, protected from direct light and sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Ointment — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Ointment): chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, whooping cough, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, myositis, neuralgia, radiculopathy, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, chronic pancreatitis (topical application), spastic colitis (topical application on the abdominal area).

Standard Dosage (Ointment): Apply a thin layer to the affected area 1—2 times daily, course 10—14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): Apply 3 times daily for pronounced joint inflammation, chronic bronchitis, radiculopathy.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): Application up to 4 times daily on limited skin areas for acute pain syndrome, course not more than 7 days.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): Apply once daily to the joint and lumbar areas in courses of 7 days every 2 months for chronic osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis in remission, myositis.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): For children from 10 years old, apply once daily to limited skin areas, avoiding mucous membranes. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 10 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Ointment): Individual intolerance, open wounds, dermatitis in the acute stage. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 10 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Ointment): Overdose may cause skin irritation, redness, burning.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ointment): Dosage adjustment not required, as it is for topical application.

Preparation method (Ointment): For 100 grams of finished product, take 20 grams of ground Ferula assa-foetida resin, 70 grams of coconut oil, 10 grams of beeswax. Melt coconut oil in a water bath at a temperature of 40—45 °C, add resin and stir for 15 minutes, then add wax, mix until homogeneous. Pour into sterile glass jars, cool at room temperature.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): Store in tightly closed dark glass jars at a temperature of 10—20 °C, protected from direct light and heat sources. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 2 months.

Cream — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Cream): hyperpigmentation, post-inflammatory pigmentation, acne, rosacea, seborrheic dermatitis, wrinkles, dry skin, decreased skin elasticity, skin irritation, skin itching.

Standard Dosage (Cream): Apply a thin layer to cleansed skin 1—2 times daily.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): Apply 3 times daily for pronounced hyperpigmentation or active inflammatory acne lesions.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): Up to 4 times daily on limited skin areas for acute inflammatory eruptions, course not more than 10 days.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): Apply once daily in courses of 30 days every 3 months for dry skin, age-related changes, seborrheic dermatitis in remission.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): For children from 12 years old, apply once daily to affected skin areas. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 12 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Cream): Individual intolerance, open wounds, acute dermatitis. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 12 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Cream): Overdose may cause skin irritation, redness, itching.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cream): Dosage adjustment not required, as it is for topical application.

Preparation method (Cream): For 100 grams of finished product, take 5 grams of Ferula assa-foetida dry extract, 60 grams of coconut oil, 25 grams of distilled water, 8 grams of emulsifier (beeswax or lecithin), 2 grams of glycerin. Melt oil with wax in a water bath at 40—45 °C, add extract and mix thoroughly, then slowly add warm water while stirring constantly until a homogeneous consistency is achieved. Finally add glycerin, mix and cool.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): Store in tightly closed dark glass jars at a temperature of 4—10 °C, protected from light. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Serum — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Serum): hyperpigmentation, post-inflammatory pigmentation, acne, rosacea, seborrheic dermatitis, couperose, dry skin, decreased skin elasticity, wrinkles, skin irritation, skin itching.

Standard Dosage (Serum): Apply 3—5 drops to cleansed skin of face and neck 1—2 times daily.

Enhanced Dosage (Serum): Apply 5—7 drops 2—3 times daily for pronounced hyperpigmentation, active inflammatory acne lesions, pronounced dry skin.

Maximum Dosage (Serum): Up to 8 drops 3 times daily on limited skin areas for acute inflammatory processes or intensive therapy of hyperpigmentation, course not more than 14 days.

Preventive Dosage (Serum): Apply 3 drops once daily in courses of 30 days every 3—4 months for age-related skin changes, seborrheic dermatitis in remission, dry skin.

Pediatric Dosage (Serum): For children from 14 years old, 1—2 drops once daily on affected skin areas. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 14 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Serum): Individual intolerance, acute dermatitis, open wounds. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 14 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Serum): Overdose may cause skin irritation, redness, itching, peeling.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Serum): Dosage adjustment not required, as it is for topical application.

Preparation method (Serum): For 100 milliliters of finished product, take 5 grams of Ferula assa-foetida dry extract, 70 milliliters of rose hydrosol, 20 milliliters of jojoba oil, 5 milliliters of coconut oil, 0.5 grams of natural thickener (xanthan gum). Mix hydrosol and extract, separately mix oils, then combine both phases at a temperature of 35—40 °C using a mini-mixer. Add thickener, mix until homogeneous consistency. Pour into sterile dropper bottles made of dark glass.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Serum): Store in a refrigerator at a temperature of 4—8 °C, protected from light. Shelf life — 3 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Oil Solution — Ferula assa-foetida

Indications (Oil Solution): flatulence, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping cough, hypertension, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, oligoamenorrhea, chronic pancreatitis, helminthiasis (internal and external application).

Standard Dosage (Oil Solution): Orally: 2—3 milliliters twice daily; Topically: apply to the affected area 1—2 times daily.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Solution): Orally: 4 milliliters twice daily for pronounced flatulence, chronic constipation, spastic colitis; Topically: up to 3 times daily for bronchitis, radiculopathy.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Solution): Orally: up to 12 milliliters per day, course not more than 7 days for severe intestinal spasms; Topically: up to 4 times daily on limited skin areas, course not more than 14 days.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Solution): Orally: 1 milliliter once daily in courses of 14 days every 3 months for chronic gastritis, hypercholesterolemia, stage I hypertension.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Solution): For children from 8 years old and weighing at least 25 kg, 0.5—1 milliliter 1—2 times daily. Scientifically recorded data on use in children under 8 years of age are not available.

Contraindications (Oil Solution): Individual intolerance, acute cholecystitis, acute pancreatitis, severe hypotension. Scientifically recorded data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and for children under 8 years of age are not available.

Side Effects (Oil Solution): Overdose may cause stool disorder, nausea, skin rash.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oil Solution): For body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 25%; for body weight above 90 kg, increase the dose by 25%.

Preparation method (Oil Solution): For 100 milliliters of finished product, take 5 grams of Ferula assa-foetida dry extract, 95 milliliters of coconut oil. Slightly warm the oil to 35—40 °C, add extract and mix thoroughly until completely dissolved. Pour into dark glass bottles with a dispenser.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Solution): Store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 10—20 °C, away from direct light and sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Toxicity and Biosafety — Ferula assa-foetida

In acute oral toxicity studies (LD₅₀ determination) it has been confirmed:

• The aqueous extract of Ferula assa-foetida has an LD₅₀ > 2000 mg/kg, corresponding to the low toxicity category (class 5 according to the international classification) pdfs.semanticscholar.org+15ResearchGate+15sciencedirect.com+15.
• Galbanic acid, a compound isolated from the resin, has significantly higher toxicity; its LD₅₀ is approximately 310.2 mg/kg ResearchGate.
• The aqueous extract is considered non-toxic at an acute oral dose up to 2000 mg/kg, while galbanic acid causes toxic effects, including changes in lungs, liver, and hematological parameters jmp.ir+5ResearchGate+5pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov+5.

Studies of acute and sub-chronic toxicity (e.g., the chloroform fraction of the oleo-resin) demonstrated no toxicity at doses of 50—250 mg/kg over 30 days, with no serious organ or hematological parameter changes identified jmp.ir.

• Mohammad Hadi Zarei et al., Toxicology Reports (2023) — evaluation of LD₅₀ (> 2000 mg/kg for the extract, 310.2 mg/kg for galbanic acid ResearchGate

Pharmacodynamics — Ferula assa-foetida

Asafoetida contains a complex of biologically active compounds, primarily represented by phenolic compounds, sulfur-containing components, coumarins, terpenoid resins, and volatile oil fractions. These substances exhibit a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, exerting effects both systemically and locally. Research shows pronounced anti-inflammatory action, due to the ability of coumarins and phenolic compounds to suppress the activity of pro-inflammatory enzymes and mediators, including cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase, leading to a reduction in the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The content of sulfur-containing compounds in the resin provides antibacterial and fungicidal activity through disruption of the integrity of microbial cell membranes and inactivation of enzyme systems.

The presence of terpenoid resins and essential oils determines the antispasmodic action, realized through direct relaxation of smooth muscles and blockade of calcium channels in cell membranes. These same components participate in modulating the activity of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, which explains the sedative and moderate anxiolytic potential. The antioxidant activity of asafoetida is associated with the presence of polyphenols, which effectively neutralize free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and protecting cellular structures from damage.

The influence on the immune system is expressed in immunostimulant and immunomodulatory effects, including activation of phagocytosis and enhancement of the functional activity of macrophages. At the level of skin and mucous membranes, regenerative and keratoplastic action is observed, which is due to the stimulation of collagen synthesis and acceleration of epithelialization of damaged tissues. Essential components exert a moderate bronchodilatory and mucolytic effect, promoting improved airway patency and facilitating mucus expectoration. A hypolipidemic influence has also been recorded, realized through inhibition of lipid metabolism enzymes and reduction of circulating lipid levels in the blood plasma.

These pharmacodynamic properties are confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies conducted on cell cultures and experimental models, ensuring high reliability of the described effects and their clinical potential.

References:
1) Iranshahy M., et al. Pharmacological properties of Ferula assa-foetida oleo-gum-resin: A review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134(1):1–10.
2) Zohary D., et al. The genus Ferula: Ethnobotany and pharmacology. Fitoterapia. 2019;137:104276.

Pharmacokinetics — Ferula assa-foetida

Upon oral administration, the biologically active components of asafoetida, including phenolic compounds, coumarins, sulfur-containing substances, and terpenoids, undergo absorption in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Volatile components of the essential oil are partially absorbed already in the oral cavity and stomach, while less volatile fractions and resinous substances undergo primary emulsification and hydrolysis under the action of bile acids. Coumarins and phenolic compounds after absorption bind to plasma proteins, ensuring their distribution to various organs and tissues, including the liver, lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.

Transdermal uptake (in the composition of ointments, creams, oil solutions) occurs due to the lipophilic nature of most active components, which penetrate through the stratum corneum of the epidermis and reach the dermal layers, providing local and partially systemic effects. With inhalation administration (volatile components of essential oil), absorption occurs through the alveolar epithelium of the lungs, ensuring rapid entry into the systemic circulation.

Metabolism of asafoetida occurs mainly in the liver with the participation of cytochrome P450 enzyme systems, accompanied by oxidation, hydroxylation, and conjugation with glucuronic or sulfuric acid. Sulfur-containing compounds may undergo additional desulfurization reactions. Coumarins and phenolic components undergo phase II biotransformation, facilitating their excretion. Part of the essential oils and volatile terpenes is excreted through the lungs in the form of unchanged compounds or metabolites, which explains the characteristic odor of exhaled air after use.

The main routes of elimination are bile and urine, with lipophilic components being excreted through the sebaceous glands of the skin. Some water-soluble metabolites are removed with sweat. Prolonged use may lead to moderate accumulation in adipose tissue, which is associated with the lipophilic nature of resinous fractions; however, this accumulation is reversible upon discontinuation.

References:
1) Iranshahi M., et al. Diversity of chemical constituents in Ferula assa-foetida and their pharmacokinetic implications. Phytother. Res. 2010;24(11):1677–1684.
2) Shoaib M., et al. Metabolism and biotransformation of oleo-gum-resin compounds from Ferula species. J. Nat. Med. 2017;71(3):486–498.

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Ferula assa-foetida

The pharmacological activity of Ferula assa-foetida is determined by a complex of biologically active compounds, including coumarins, sulfur-containing substances, phenolic acids, terpenoids, phytosterols, and essential oils. Coumarins exhibit the ability to inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, reducing the synthesis of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which leads to modulation of inflammatory processes at the cellular level. The content of sulfur-containing compounds determines the bactericidal effect through disruption of bacterial membrane integrity and inactivation of enzyme systems. Terpenoids affect calcium channels of smooth muscle cells, causing their relaxation, and also interact with GABA receptors, contributing to sedative action. The antioxidant activity of phenolic components is realized through direct binding of free radicals and suppression of the activation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling cascades, which further reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α). Some fractions of the extract exert an immunomodulatory effect, activating macrophages and enhancing phagocytic activity. Coumarins and phenolic compounds can also inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which affects acetylcholine levels in the synaptic cleft and may have a modulating effect on the nervous system.

References:
1) Iranshahy M., et al. Pharmacological properties of Ferula assa-foetida oleo-gum-resin: A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep....
2) Amin B., et al. Chemical composition and biological activities of Ferula assa-foetida L. Fitoterapia. 2013;89:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fito...

Synergy — Ferula assa-foetida

Experimental and biochemical studies show that Ferula assa-foetida can exhibit pharmacological synergy with other taxa and biologically active substances. Combined use with Zingiber officinale (ginger) and Curcuma longa (turmeric) demonstrates potentiating enhancement of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity due to synchronous suppression of COX and LOX activity, as well as suppression of NF-κB activation. Combination with Allium sativum (garlic) enhances the antimicrobial effect, which is associated with the summation of the action of sulfur-containing compounds that disrupt the integrity of microbial cell membranes. Interaction with Piper nigrum (black pepper) and piperine leads to increased bioavailability of coumarins and phenolic compounds of asafoetida through inhibition of liver metabolism enzymes, enhancing systemic action. Combination with Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) and Cuminum cyminum (cumin) demonstrates an additive antispasmodic effect on the smooth muscles of the digestive tract through joint blockade of calcium channels and reduction of acetylcholine release. Combined use with natural flavonoid-containing plants, e.g., Camellia sinensis (tea), exhibits synergistic enhancement of antioxidant potential at the systemic level due to an increase in total antiradical capacity.

References:
1) Singh B., et al. Synergistic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of Ferula assa-foetida with other herbal extracts. Phytomedicine. 2017;34:126–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phym...
2) Ghasemi Pirbalouti A., et al. Antimicrobial synergism of Ferula assa-foetida and selected medicinal plants. Ind Crops Prod. 2014;61:331–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indc...

Geography of Use and Folk Medicine — Ferula assa-foetida

Ferula assa-foetida has long been known in the countries of the Middle East, South Asia, and Central Asia, including Iran, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The most active traditional use has been recorded in Iranian, Indian (including the Ayurvedic system), Afghan, and Tibetan medicine. In Ayurvedic tradition, asafoetida was considered a plant with strong energy, capable of influencing the internal balance of the body, and was used in the form of powder, oil extracts, infusions, and decoctions. In Iranian folk medicine, the resin was used as an aromatic and cleansing agent, as well as a component of smoking compositions. In Tibetan tradition, it was mentioned in the composition of complex herbal mixtures used for ritual-medical purposes.

Historical sources testify to the use of asafoetida already in antiquity: it is mentioned by Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder as a valuable resin imported from Persia and Bactria. In Arabic medical treatises of the Middle Ages (Al-Qanun by Ibn Sina), asafoetida was mentioned as an agent with a pronounced aroma, used for "cleansing" and "warming." In ethnobotanical descriptions of the peoples of Central Asia, the resin was used in rituals of exorcism of evil spirits, fumigation of dwellings, and protection from the "evil eye." Among Afghan and Pashtun tribes, it was part of amulets worn in cloth bags around the neck.

In the culinary traditions of India, asafoetida is known as a spice with a pungent odor, capable of altering the flavor profile of dishes; its culinary use often overlapped with folk ideas about its cleansing and warming properties. In some Zoroastrian rituals, it served as an element of purifying incense. In the territories of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, practices of fumigating premises with asafoetida resin at the beginning of spring are still preserved, which is associated with traditions of protection from diseases and renewal of the home.