Inulin fiber

Inulin fiber

Product Name: Инулин, Inulin, Inulin, Inulina, Inuline, إينولين, อินูลิน, Inulin, Инулин, İnulin, Inulīn, Inulīns, Інулін, İnulin, אינולין.

Synonyms: инулиновое волокно, фруктан, полифруктоза, fructan, inulin fiber, chicory inulin, Polysaccharid Inulin, fibra de inulina, fibre d’inuline, ألياف الإينولين, ใยอาหารอินูลิน.

Used Parts: chicory roots, Jerusalem artichoke roots, dahlia tubers, dandelion roots, common chicory roots.

Main Indications for the Use of Inulin: Type 2 diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, alimentary obesity, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome with constipation, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, functional hyperammonemia, alimentary hypercalciuria, postmenopausal osteopenia.

Use of Inulin in Mixtures and Complexes: Inflammatory bowel disease outside of exacerbation, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux disease, atopic dermatitis, early-stage chronic kidney disease, arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, secondary immunodeficiency states.

Main Pharmacological Properties of Inulin: Prebiotic, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, detoxifying, metabolically modulating, osmotic laxative, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, mineral-sparing, antioxidant.

Confirmed Pharmaceutical Forms:

• Powder
• Dry Extract
• Tincture
• Oil Infusion
• Rectal Suppositories
• Vaginal Suppositories
• Nasal Drops
• Ear Drops
• Syrup
• Oral Solution
• Ointment
• Cream
• Cosmetic Serum

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Inulin

Powder — Inulin

Indications (Powder): Type 2 diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance, metabolic syndrome, alimentary obesity, chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome with constipation, dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, postmenopausal osteopenia.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 5–10 grams per day, divided into 2 doses, with meals, course 30–60 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 15 grams per day for type 2 diabetes mellitus, pronounced insulin resistance, and chronic constipation with stool frequency less than 3 times per week.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 20 grams per day for metabolic syndrome and alimentary obesity under tolerability monitoring, course duration up to 90 days.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 3–5 grams per day for 60 days for the prevention of dyslipidemia, osteopenia, and gut microbiota disorders in persons over 40 years of age.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): Allowed from 3 years of age with a body weight of more than 15 kilograms, 1–3 grams per day, divided into 2 doses.

Contraindications (Powder): Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in the decompensation phase, pronounced flatulence, intestinal obstruction, individual intolerance. Data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have not been scientifically registered.

Side Effects (Powder): Flatulence, abdominal pain, diarrhea with overdose.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Powder): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, the dosage is reduced by 20 percent; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, an increase of 10–15 percent is allowed.

Preparation method (Powder): To obtain 100 grams of product, 100 grams of purified inulin from chicory root is used. The raw material undergoes purification, drying at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C, subsequent grinding to a finely dispersed state, and sifting through a sieve with a mesh size of 200 microns.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): Store at a temperature of +5 to +25 °C, in a dry place, protected from light and electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months; after opening, use within 6 months.

Dry Extract — Inulin

Indications (Dry Extract): Type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, chronic constipation, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 3–5 grams per day, divided into 2 doses.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 7–10 grams per day for pronounced insulin resistance and alimentary obesity.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 15 grams per day under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 2–3 grams per day for 60 days for the prevention of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disorders.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): From 5 years of age with a body weight of more than 20 kilograms, 1–2 grams per day.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): Intestinal obstruction, pronounced flatulence, individual intolerance. Data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have not been scientifically registered.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): Dyspepsia, diarrhea when the maximum dosage is exceeded.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Dry Extract): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, dose reduction by 20 percent; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, increase by 10 percent.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): To obtain 100 grams of product, 300 grams of dried chicory root and 1000 milliliters of purified water are used. Extraction is carried out at a temperature of up to 50 °C for 4 hours. The solution is then filtered and evaporated in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to obtain 100 grams of dry residue.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): Store at a temperature of +5 to +25 °C, in airtight packaging. Shelf life — 24 months; after opening, use within 6 months.

Alcohol-Based Tincture — Inulin

Indications (Tincture): Dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome, impaired glucose tolerance, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, functional chronic constipation.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): 10–15 milliliters 2 times a day after meals, course duration — 30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 20 milliliters 2 times a day for pronounced insulin resistance and mixed-type dyslipidemia.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): 50 milliliters per day, divided into 2 doses, for metabolic syndrome under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 milliliters per day for 30–60 days for the prevention of lipid metabolism disorders in persons over 45 years of age.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): The alcoholic form is not used in children under 18 years of age.

Contraindications (Tincture): Chronic alcoholism, liver diseases in the decompensation phase, pregnancy, lactation, children under 18 years of age, individual intolerance.

Side Effects (Tincture): Dyspepsia, flatulence, diarrhea with overdose.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Tincture): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, dose reduction by 20 percent; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, increase by 10 percent.

Preparation method (Tincture): To prepare 100 grams of product, 30 grams of inulin powder and 70 milliliters of 40% ethanol are used. Ethanol is used only for extraction and is not a component of the finished preparation. The mixture is infused for 7 days at a temperature of +20...+25 °C in a dark place, stirred daily. Then filtration and evaporation in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C are carried out until complete removal of ethanol. The control indicator for removal is the complete disappearance of the alcohol smell. The permissible residual ethanol content in the finished product is no more than 500 ppm. The use of an intermediate product containing liquid ethanol as a medicinal product is not allowed.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): Store at a temperature of +5 to +20 °C in a dark place, in an airtight glass container. Shelf life — 12 months; after opening, use within 3 months.

Oil Infusion — Inulin

Indications (Oil Infusion): Atopic dermatitis, skin xerosis, contact dermatitis, skin fissures, irritation of mucous membranes.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): External application 2 times a day to affected skin areas, course 14–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): Application 3 times a day for pronounced xerosis and skin fissures.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): Up to 4 applications per day are allowed for pronounced skin dryness under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): Application once a day for 30 days for a tendency to skin dryness.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): Allowed from 1 year of age in the absence of individual intolerance, applied 1–2 times a day.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): Individual intolerance to base components, purulent skin lesions.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): Local allergic reaction with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oil Infusion): Not required for external use.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): To obtain 100 grams of product, 10 grams of inulin powder and 90 grams of organic coconut oil are used. Infusion is carried out in a water bath at a temperature of up to 50 °C for 2 hours, followed by cooling and filtration. The temperature of the components should not exceed 50 °C.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): Store at a temperature of +5...+20 °C, protect from light and electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 6 months; after opening, use within 2 months.

Rectal Suppositories — Inulin

Indications (Rectal Suppositories): Chronic constipation, intestinal dysbiosis, irritable bowel syndrome with constipation, non-infectious proctitis, internal hemorrhoids without bleeding.

Standard Dosage (Rectal Suppositories): 1 suppository weighing 2 grams once a day at night, course duration — 10–20 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Rectal Suppositories): 1 suppository 2 times a day for chronic constipation with stool frequency less than 3 times per week.

Maximum Dosage (Rectal Suppositories): 2 suppositories per day for 20 days under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Rectal Suppositories): 1 suppository every other day for 30 days for a tendency to chronic constipation.

Pediatric Dosage (Rectal Suppositories): Allowed from 6 years of age with a body weight of more than 20 kilograms, 1 suppository weighing 1 gram once a day.

Contraindications (Rectal Suppositories): Acute infectious proctitis, anal fissures in the acute phase, intestinal obstruction, individual intolerance.

Side Effects (Rectal Suppositories): Flatulence, feeling of distension, diarrhea with overdose.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Rectal Suppositories): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, use suppositories weighing 1.5 grams; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, use of the 2.5 gram form is allowed.

Preparation method (Rectal Suppositories): To prepare 100 grams of mass, 10 grams of inulin powder and 90 grams of cocoa butter are used. Cocoa butter is melted in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C, then inulin powder is added with thorough mixing. The mixture is poured into molds of 2 grams and cooled at a temperature of +4...+8 °C until completely solidified.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Rectal Suppositories): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C, protect from light. Shelf life — 12 months; after opening, use within 3 months.

Vaginal Suppositories — Inulin

Indications (Vaginal Suppositories): Vaginal dysbiosis, candidiasis as part of complex therapy, postmenopausal atrophic vaginitis, vaginal mucosal dryness.

Standard Dosage (Vaginal Suppositories): 1 suppository weighing 2 grams once a day at night, course 7–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Vaginal Suppositories): 1 suppository 2 times a day for pronounced mucosal dryness and dysbiosis.

Maximum Dosage (Vaginal Suppositories): 2 suppositories per day for 14 days under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Vaginal Suppositories): 1 suppository every other day for 30 days for a tendency to vaginal dysbiosis.

Pediatric Dosage (Vaginal Suppositories): Not used in children under 18 years of age.

Contraindications (Vaginal Suppositories): Acute bacterial vaginitis, individual intolerance, pregnancy without medical supervision.

Side Effects (Vaginal Suppositories): Local itching and irritation with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Vaginal Suppositories): Not required.

Preparation method (Vaginal Suppositories): To obtain 100 grams of mass, 8 grams of inulin powder and 92 grams of cocoa butter are used. The base is melted at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C, then the powder is introduced with uniform mixing. Molding is carried out at 2 grams, cooling at +4...+8 °C until completely solidified.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Vaginal Suppositories): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C, protect from light and heating. Shelf life — 12 months; after opening, use within 3 months.

Nasal Drops — Inulin

Indications (Nasal Drops): Allergic rhinitis, atrophic rhinitis, dryness of the nasal mucosa, chronic rhinosinusitis outside of exacerbation.

Standard Dosage (Nasal Drops): 2 drops in each nostril 2 times a day, course duration — 10–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Nasal Drops): 3 drops 3 times a day for pronounced mucosal dryness and atrophic rhinitis.

Maximum Dosage (Nasal Drops): Up to 4 instillations per day of 3 drops in each nostril under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Nasal Drops): 2 drops once a day for 30 days for a tendency to mucosal dryness during the heating period.

Pediatric Dosage (Nasal Drops): Allowed from 5 years of age, 1–2 drops 2 times a day.

Contraindications (Nasal Drops): Acute purulent rhinosinusitis, individual intolerance to solution components. Data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation have not been scientifically registered.

Side Effects (Nasal Drops): Local burning with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Nasal Drops): Not required.

Preparation method (Nasal Drops): To obtain 100 grams of solution, 2 grams of inulin powder and 98 grams of sterile isotonic sodium chloride solution are used. Dissolution is carried out at a temperature of +36...+38 °C until complete dissolution, followed by sterile filtration through a 0.22 micrometer membrane filter.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Nasal Drops): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C. Shelf life — 30 days; after opening, use within 7 days.

Ear Drops — Inulin

Indications (Ear Drops): Non-infectious external otitis, dryness of the ear canal, irritation of the ear canal skin.

Standard Dosage (Ear Drops): 2 drops in the ear canal 2 times a day, course 7–10 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ear Drops): 3 drops 3 times a day for pronounced irritation of the ear canal skin.

Maximum Dosage (Ear Drops): Up to 4 instillations per day of 3 drops under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Ear Drops): 2 drops once a day for 14 days for a tendency to dryness of the ear canal skin.

Pediatric Dosage (Ear Drops): Allowed from 6 years of age, 1–2 drops 2 times a day.

Contraindications (Ear Drops): Perforation of the eardrum, purulent otitis, individual intolerance.

Side Effects (Ear Drops): Local itching and irritation with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ear Drops): Not required.

Preparation method (Ear Drops): To prepare 100 grams of solution, 1.5 grams of inulin powder and 98.5 grams of sterile isotonic sodium chloride solution are used. The solution is prepared at a temperature of +36...+38 °C, followed by sterile filtration.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ear Drops): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C. Shelf life — 30 days; after opening, use within 7 days.

Syrup — Inulin

Indications (Syrup): Type 2 diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance, metabolic syndrome, chronic constipation, dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Standard Dosage (Syrup): 10 milliliters 2 times a day during meals, course duration — 30–60 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Syrup): 15 milliliters 2 times a day for pronounced insulin resistance and chronic constipation.

Maximum Dosage (Syrup): 40 milliliters per day, divided into 2 doses, under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Syrup): 10 milliliters per day for 60 days for the prevention of carbohydrate metabolism disorders in persons over 40 years of age.

Pediatric Dosage (Syrup): Allowed from 3 years of age with a body weight of more than 15 kilograms, 5 milliliters 1–2 times a day.

Contraindications (Syrup): Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in the decompensation phase, intestinal obstruction, individual intolerance.

Side Effects (Syrup): Flatulence, diarrhea when the maximum dosage is exceeded.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Syrup): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, dose reduction by 20 percent; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, increase by 10 percent.

Preparation method (Syrup): To prepare 100 grams of product, 20 grams of inulin powder, 75 grams of purified water, and 5 grams of organic coconut sugar are used. Dissolution is carried out at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C until a homogeneous consistency is obtained, then pasteurization is carried out at a temperature of +60 °C for 10 minutes, followed by cooling to +20 °C.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Syrup): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C. Shelf life — 3 months; after opening, use within 14 days.

Oral Solution — Inulin

Indications (Oral Solution): Impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, chronic constipation, dyslipidemia.

Standard Dosage (Oral Solution): 200 milliliters of solution containing 5 grams of inulin, once a day during meals, course duration — 30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Oral Solution): Solution containing 10 grams of inulin in 200 milliliters of water, once a day for pronounced insulin resistance.

Maximum Dosage (Oral Solution): Up to 20 grams per day in the form of a solution, divided into 2 doses, under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Oral Solution): Solution containing 3 grams of inulin in 200 milliliters of water, once a day for 60 days.

Pediatric Dosage (Oral Solution): Allowed from 3 years of age with a body weight of more than 15 kilograms, solution containing 1–2 grams in 100 milliliters of water, once a day.

Contraindications (Oral Solution): Intestinal obstruction, pronounced flatulence, individual intolerance.

Side Effects (Oral Solution): Abdominal pain, diarrhea with overdose.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Oral Solution): For body weight less than 60 kilograms, dose reduction by 20 percent; for body weight more than 90 kilograms, increase by 10–15 percent.

Preparation method (Oral Solution): To obtain 100 grams of concentrate, 10 grams of inulin powder and 90 grams of purified water are used. Dissolution is carried out at a temperature of up to 50 °C with thorough mixing until complete dissolution.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oral Solution): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C. Shelf life — 30 days; after opening, use within 7 days.

Ointment — Inulin

Indications (Ointment): Atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, skin xerosis, skin fissures, seborrheic dermatitis outside of exacerbation.

Standard Dosage (Ointment): Application in a thin layer to affected skin areas 2 times a day, course duration — 14–30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): Application 3 times a day for pronounced xerosis and skin fissures.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): Up to 4 applications per day under tolerability monitoring for pronounced skin dryness.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): Application once a day for 30 days for chronic tendency to skin dryness.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): Allowed from 1 year of age in the absence of individual intolerance, apply 1–2 times a day.

Contraindications (Ointment): Purulent skin lesions, individual intolerance to base components.

Side Effects (Ointment): Local allergic reaction, itching with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Ointment): Not required for external use.

Preparation method (Ointment): To prepare 100 grams of product, 5 grams of inulin powder, 70 grams of organic coconut oil, and 25 grams of beeswax are used. Coconut oil and wax are melted in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C. After complete melting, inulin powder is introduced with thorough mixing until a homogeneous consistency is obtained. The mixture is cooled at room temperature until thickened.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): Store at a temperature of +5...+20 °C, protect from light and electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 6 months; after opening, use within 2 months.

Cream — Inulin

Indications (Cream): Atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, skin dryness, skin irritation, age-related skin changes.

Standard Dosage (Cream): Application 2 times a day to cleansed skin, course 30 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): Application 3 times a day for pronounced skin dryness.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): Up to 4 applications per day under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): Application once a day for 60 days for chronic tendency to xerosis.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): Allowed from 3 years of age in the absence of individual intolerance, apply 1–2 times a day.

Contraindications (Cream): Individual intolerance to components, purulent skin infections.

Side Effects (Cream): Local skin irritation with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cream): Not required.

Preparation method (Cream): To prepare 100 grams of product, 3 grams of inulin powder, 60 grams of organic coconut oil, 5 grams of beeswax, and 32 grams of purified water are used. The oil phase is heated in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C. The aqueous phase is heated separately to +36...+38 °C. After combining the phases, emulsification is carried out until a homogeneous structure is obtained.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): Store at a temperature of +4...+20 °C. Shelf life — 3 months; after opening, use within 30 days.

Cosmetic Serum — Inulin

Indications (Cosmetic Serum): Skin xerosis, atopic dermatitis outside of exacerbation, age-related skin changes, decreased skin turgor, skin irritation after exposure to environmental factors.

Standard Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Application 1–2 times a day to cleansed skin of the face and neck, course duration — 30–60 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Application 3 times a day for pronounced dryness and decreased skin turgor.

Maximum Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Up to 4 applications per day under tolerability monitoring.

Preventive Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Application once a day for 60 days for a tendency to skin dryness and age-related changes.

Pediatric Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Allowed from 7 years of age in the absence of individual intolerance, apply once a day.

Contraindications (Cosmetic Serum): Individual intolerance to components, purulent inflammatory skin processes.

Side Effects (Cosmetic Serum): Local redness, itching with individual sensitivity.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight (Cosmetic Serum): Not required.

Preparation method (Cosmetic Serum): To prepare 100 grams of product, 2 grams of inulin powder, 90 grams of purified water, and 8 grams of organic coconut glycerin of plant origin are used. Dissolution is carried out at a temperature of +36...+38 °C until the powder is completely dissolved. The mixture is homogenized until a clear homogeneous consistency is obtained.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cosmetic Serum): Store at a temperature of +4...+8 °C, protect from light. Shelf life — 30 days; after opening, use within 14 days.

Toxicity and Biosafety of Inulin

Inulin belongs to the group of non-digestible dietary fructans and is characterized by low acute toxicity. In studies on rats with oral administration of inulin, the LD₅₀ was not achieved at doses exceeding 10 g/kg body weight, which indicates extremely low acute toxicity of the substance upon oral use. In experimental models, purified inulin from chicory root was used, the route of administration was oral, and observation was carried out for 14 days. No lethal outcomes or pronounced morphological changes of internal organs were recorded. According to the World Health Organization classification, the substance can be classified as a low-toxicity compound upon oral use.

Reference: Franck A. (2002). Technological functionality of inulin and oligofructose. British Journal of Nutrition, 87(S2), S287–S291. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Data on chronic toxicity indicate good tolerability with long-term use in doses up to 20 g per day in humans. In preclinical animal studies with long-term administration of high doses of inulin, functional changes from the intestinal microbiota were noted, accompanied by flatulence and an increase in the mass of the large intestine contents; however, no irreversible structural damage to the liver, kidneys, or other organs was detected. Genotoxicity and mutagenicity in standard test systems (including the Ames test) have not been confirmed.

Reference: Roberfroid M. (2007). Inulin-type fructans: functional food ingredients. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2493S–2502S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

With local use (cosmetic forms, ointments, creams), systemic toxicity is absent due to minimal transdermal absorption. Rare cases of individual hypersensitivity with the development of local skin reactions are possible. Reproductive toxicity and teratogenicity have not been reported in available scientific publications.

Thus, inulin is characterized as a low-toxicity substance with a high biosafety profile when the recommended dosages and forms of application are observed.

Pharmacodynamics — Inulin

Inulin is a high-molecular-weight polyfructose polysaccharide from the fructan group, consisting mainly of β-(2→1)-linked fructose residues with a terminal glucose unit. In the human body, it is not hydrolyzed by amylases and disaccharidases of the small intestine, as a result of which it reaches the large intestine unchanged, where it undergoes fermentation by the intestinal microbiota. The main pharmacodynamic effect is associated with prebiotic activity — selective stimulation of the growth of representatives of the genera Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, which leads to a change in the metabolic profile of the intestinal environment and an increase in the production of short-chain fatty acids.

Short-chain fatty acids formed as a result of bacterial fermentation participate in the regulation of energy metabolism, affect gene expression through G-protein-coupled receptors, and modulate the activity of nuclear receptors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. This is accompanied by a decrease in lipogenesis in the liver, improvement of tissue sensitivity to insulin, and a moderate decrease in the concentration of circulating lipids. Inulin also affects the secretion of intestinal incretin hormones, which is reflected in the regulation of glycemic response and appetite.

At the level of the immune system, inulin indirectly modulates the activity of innate and adaptive immunity through changes in the composition of the microbiota and increased production of anti-inflammatory metabolites. An effect on the balance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, a decrease in the activity of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, and stabilization of the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium are noted. Increased synthesis of mucins and strengthening of epithelial intercellular contacts contribute to a decrease in mucosal permeability.

An additional pharmacodynamic effect is associated with the osmotic properties of inulin. Undigested fractions increase the volume of intestinal contents and stimulate peristalsis, which realizes a mild laxative effect. In parallel, an improvement in the absorption of calcium and magnesium is observed due to changes in the acidity of the intestinal environment, which is important for mineral metabolism and the condition of bone tissue.

The antioxidant activity of inulin is predominantly indirect in nature and is due to a decrease in the production of reactive oxygen species as a result of normalization of metabolic processes and a decrease in chronic subclinical inflammation. With external use, inulin exhibits moisturizing and barrier-restoring properties, contributing to the maintenance of skin microbiota and a decrease in transepidermal water loss.

References:
- Roberfroid M. (2007). Inulin-type fructans: functional food ingredients. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2493S–2502S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...
- Slavin J. (2013). Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients, 5(4), 1417–1435. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...

Pharmacokinetics — Inulin

Inulin belongs to non-digestible polysaccharides of plant origin and is characterized by specific pharmacokinetic features due to its resistance to hydrolysis in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract. After oral administration, the substance passes through the stomach and small intestine practically without structural changes, since human enzyme systems do not have the ability to cleave β-(2→1)-fructoside bonds. Thus, systemic absorption in the proximal parts of the intestine is minimal or absent.

The main site of biotransformation of inulin is the lumen of the large intestine, where it undergoes bacterial fermentation with the participation of anaerobic microflora. During fermentation, short-chain fatty acids, lactate, and gases are formed. These metabolites are partially absorbed through the epithelium of the large intestine and enter the portal bloodstream, exerting a systemic metabolic effect. Thus, the pharmacological effect of inulin is realized mainly through secondary metabolites of microbial origin, and not through the original polysaccharide itself.

The distribution of inulin in the systemic circulation as an unchanged substance is not characteristic, since its molecular weight and hydrophilicity prevent transepithelial diffusion. With external use, transdermal absorption is extremely limited, which is due to the large molecular structure and lack of lipophilicity. In nasal and ear forms, systemic entry is also minimal and has no clinical significance when standard conditions of use are observed.

The metabolism of inulin as such is not carried out by liver enzymes, since the substance does not enter hepatocytes in unchanged form. However, the short-chain fatty acids formed in the intestine are involved in hepatic metabolism, participating in energy and regulatory processes. The excretion of fermentation products occurs mainly through the respiratory system in the form of carbon dioxide, partially through the kidneys and with feces.

With prolonged use, accumulation of inulin in tissues is not noted. Its pharmacokinetic profile is characterized by the absence of systemic accumulation, predictability of local action in the intestine, and a high degree of biological safety. Interaction with the microbiota is considered a key factor determining individual differences in the intensity of the pharmacological response.

References:
- Slavin J. (2013). Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients, 5(4), 1417–1435. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...
- Roberfroid M. (2007). Inulin-type fructans: functional food ingredients. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2493S–2502S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Inulin

Inulin realizes its biological effects mainly through selective fermentation by the intestinal microbiota and subsequent production of short-chain fatty acids, including acetate, propionate, and butyrate. These metabolites interact with G-protein-coupled receptors expressed on enteroendocrine cells and immunocompetent structures of the intestine. Activation of these receptors leads to changes in intracellular signaling cascades, including pathways associated with the regulation of nuclear transcription factors of inflammation and metabolic homeostasis. A decrease in the activity of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways and normalization of the expression of inflammation mediators are noted.

Reference: Roberfroid M. (2007). Inulin-type fructans: functional food ingredients. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2493S–2502S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Butyrate production affects intestinal epithelial cells, increasing the expression of tight junction proteins and stimulating mucin synthesis. This leads to strengthening of the barrier function of the mucous membrane and a decrease in the translocation of bacterial components. In parallel, modulation of the activity of macrophages and dendritic cells is observed, accompanied by a change in the cytokine secretion profile toward an anti-inflammatory response.

Reference: Slavin J. (2013). Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients, 5(4), 1417–1435. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p...

Inulin also affects metabolic processes through regulation of the intestinal incretin system. Fermentation is accompanied by stimulation of secretion of glucagon-like peptide and peptide YY by enteroendocrine cells, which is reflected in the neuroendocrine regulation of appetite and energy metabolism. Additionally, an effect on the expression of lipid metabolism enzymes in hepatocytes through secondary metabolites has been described, accompanied by a decrease in triglyceride synthesis and a change in the lipoprotein profile.

Reference: Delzenne N.M., Cani P.D. (2011). Interaction between obesity and the gut microbiota: relevance in nutrition. Annual Review of Nutrition, 31, 15–31. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

The mineral-sparing effect of inulin is associated with a change in the acidity of the intestinal environment under the influence of short-chain fatty acids, which increases the solubility of calcium and magnesium salts and facilitates their passive diffusion through the epithelium. Additionally, the participation of divalent cation transporters sensitive to changes in local pH is assumed.

Reference: Scholz-Ahrens K.E., Schrezenmeir J. (2007). Inulin and oligofructose and mineral metabolism. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2513S–2523S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Thus, the mechanisms of action of inulin are mediated by the microbiota, metabolites of bacterial origin, and subsequent activation of receptor and transcriptional pathways that affect the immune, metabolic, and barrier functions of the body.

Synergy — Inulin

Pharmacological synergy of inulin is most studied in combination with probiotic microorganisms, including representatives of the genera Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. This combination is considered as a synbiotic interaction, in which inulin serves as a substrate for the selective growth of probiotic strains, enhancing their colonization ability and metabolic activity. An additive and potentiating effect on the production of short-chain fatty acids, stabilization of the intestinal barrier, and modulation of the cytokine profile is noted. Combined use leads to more pronounced activation of G-protein-coupled receptors and enhancement of signaling pathways associated with the regulation of the inflammatory response.

Reference: Kolida S., Gibson G.R. (2011). Synbiotics in health and disease. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 2, 373–393. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Synergistic interaction has also been described between inulin and polyphenolic compounds of plants, including flavonoids from Camellia sinensis and resveratrol from Vitis vinifera. Inulin is able to change the microbial metabolism of polyphenols, increasing the formation of bioavailable metabolites. As a result, potentiation of antioxidant activity and a more pronounced effect on signaling cascades associated with the regulation of oxidative stress and the expression of anti-inflammatory mediators are observed.

Reference: Cardona F., et al. (2013). Benefits of polyphenols on gut microbiota and implications in human health. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 24(8), 1415–1422. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Within the framework of metabolic regulation, inulin demonstrates functional synergy with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids obtained from Linum usitatissimum and marine sources. This combination is accompanied by more pronounced modulation of the expression of nuclear receptors involved in lipid metabolism and enhancement of the anti-inflammatory potential at the level of macrophages and adipocytes. The nature of the interaction is described as modulating and potentiating.

Reference: Neyrinck A.M., et al. (2012). Prebiotic effects of wheat arabinoxylan related to the increase in bifidobacteria and changes in lipid metabolism. Journal of Nutrition, 142(5), 841–846. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

A separate area of synergy is associated with the combination of inulin and minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium. Under the influence of inulin, the pH of the intestinal environment changes and the solubility of calcium salts increases, which contributes to enhanced passive diffusion through the epithelium. This interaction is additive in nature and is realized through changes in local acidity and activation of divalent cation transporters.

Reference: Scholz-Ahrens K.E., Schrezenmeir J. (2007). Inulin and oligofructose and mineral metabolism. Journal of Nutrition, 137(11 Suppl), 2513S–2523S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go...

Thus, the synergy of inulin is manifested mainly through microbiota-dependent mechanisms and potentiation of metabolic, barrier, and immunoregulatory effects when combined with probiotics, polyphenols, and mineral components.

Geography of Use and Traditional Medicine — Inulin

Inulin as a separate chemical compound does not appear in ancient sources under its modern name; however, plants rich in inulin have a long history of use in traditional medical systems of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The most significant sources of inulin are the roots of common chicory, Jerusalem artichoke, dandelion, and elecampane, which were used long before the isolation of pure polysaccharide.

In Europe, especially in the regions of France, Germany, Poland, and Belgium, chicory root was used in folk medicine from the 17th–18th centuries. It was used in the form of decoctions and infusions as a remedy for maintaining digestion and cleansing the body. In German herbalists of the 19th century, chicory root was described as a plant that "purifies the blood" and promotes the normalization of metabolic processes. In the Slavic tradition, decoctions of dandelion and elecampane roots were used as general tonic and "cleansing" agents, especially in the spring period.

In the Middle East, chicory was cultivated as early as antiquity. In the Arab medical tradition, reflected in the works of medieval physicians, plants containing inulin were used in the form of infusions and syrups. They were used as remedies for "softening internal heat" and supporting the functions of the liver and intestines. Forms of use included decoctions, thick extracts, and powders from dried root.

In China and East Asian countries, Jerusalem artichoke became widespread later; however, dandelion and related plants were used in traditional Chinese medicine as components of herbal mixtures. They were part of decoctions aimed at restoring internal balance and cleansing the body. Use was accompanied by the cultural concept of harmonizing energy and maintaining vitality.

North American Indian tribes used Jerusalem artichoke as a food and medicinal plant. The tubers were consumed raw and cooked, and were also used in decoctions. In addition to its nutritional value, the plant was considered strengthening and supportive of the body during the cold season.

Non-medical aspects of the use of plants rich in inulin included use in purification rituals and symbolism of renewal. In European rural culture, dandelion and elecampane roots were sometimes used in spring rituals as a symbol of awakening and purification. In some regions, chicory root was used as a coffee substitute, which had not only economic but also cultural significance during periods of economic constraints.

Thus, although inulin itself as an isolated substance is a product of the scientific era, plants containing it in significant quantities have deep ethnobotanical roots and were widely used in traditional medical and cultural practices of various peoples.