Diospyros mollis

Diospyros mollis

Product Name: Диоспирос морщинистый, Diospyros mollis, Schwarzholz-Dattelpflaume, ébano negro, ébène noir, خشب الأبنوس, มะเกลือ, qora eben, карагат кара, qara abanoz, абнус, juodasis ebenas, melnais ebenkoks, чорне ебенове дерево, qara abanoz, עץ הובנה שחור

Synonyms: чёрное эбеновое дерево, black ebony, black persimmon, Schwarzholz, ébano negro, ébène noir, خشب الأبنوس الأسود, มะเกลือดำ

Main Indications for the Use of Diospyros mollis: helminthiasis, trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, trichinellosis, toxocariasis, fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis, schistosomiasis, echinococcosis, diarrhea of infectious etiology, intestinal amebiasis, colitis of infectious etiology, dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, mucosal candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma.

Use of Diospyros mollis in Mixtures and Complexes: pinworms, giardiasis, chronic gastroenteritis, chronic colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, bacterial vaginosis, recurrent thrush, skin fungal infections of mixed etiology, intestinal dysbiosis, inflammation of the oral mucosa, periodontitis.

Pharmacological Properties of Diospyros mollis: anthelmintic, antiprotozoal, antifungal, antimicrobial, astringent, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, fungicidal, bacteriostatic, insecticidal, immunomodulatory.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Diospyros mollis

Powder — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Powder): helminthiasis, trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, trichinellosis, toxocariasis, fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis, schistosomiasis, echinococcosis, diarrhea of infectious etiology, intestinal amebiasis, colitis of infectious etiology, dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, mucosal candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 1.5–2 grams of powder orally 2 times a day, 30 minutes before meals, with warm boiled water.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 2.5–3 grams 2 times a day for severe forms of helminthiasis (trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, schistosomiasis) and chronic dermatophytosis, course not exceeding 7 days.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): up to 3.5 grams 2 times a day under inpatient supervision, only for severe mixed helminthic infestations and resistant dermatomycoses.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 1 gram of powder once daily for 5 days every 6 months for the prevention of helminthiasis in individuals working with animals or in agriculture.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): for children over 7 years old and weighing at least 25 kg — 0.5–1 gram 2 times a day. For children under 7 years, scientific data on use are not registered.

Contraindications (Powder): individual hypersensitivity, severe liver diseases, exacerbation of gastric ulcer. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 7 years are not registered.

Side Effects (Powder): in case of overdose — nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dizziness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for weight above 90 kg, increase by 10%.

Preparation method (Powder). Ingredients per 100 grams: Diospyros mollis fruits — 100 g.

Thoroughly wash the fruits with running water, air-dry, then dry in a drying cabinet at 45–50 °C until residual moisture is no more than 10%. After cooling, grind to a powder in a stainless steel mill to a fraction of no more than 0.3 mm. Sift through a No. 0.5 sieve. Store in an airtight container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): store in a dark, dry place at a temperature not exceeding 25 °C, protect from direct sunlight and electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening the package, use within 3 months.

Dry Extract — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Dry Extract): helminthiasis, trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, trichinellosis, toxocariasis, fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis, schistosomiasis, echinococcosis, intestinal amebiasis, dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, mucosal candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 0.5–1 gram of dry extract orally 2 times a day, 30 minutes before meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 1.5 grams 2 times a day for severe helminthiasis (schistosomiasis, opisthorchiasis) and chronic fungal skin infections.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): up to 2 grams 2 times a day under inpatient conditions for resistant mixed infections.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 0.5 grams once daily for 5 days every 6–8 months for the prevention of parasitic infections in at-risk individuals.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): for children over 7 years old and weighing at least 25 kg — 0.25–0.5 grams 2 times a day. For children under 7 years, scientific data on use are not registered.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): individual hypersensitivity, severe liver diseases, exacerbation of gastric ulcer. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 7 years are not registered.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): in case of overdose — nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headache, allergic skin rashes.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for weight above 90 kg, increase by 10%.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): Ingredients per 100 grams: Diospyros mollis fruits — 300 g (dry raw material), purified water — 1000 ml, 70% ethanol — 500 ml (for extraction only, absent in the final product).

Grind the raw material to 2–3 mm crumbs, pour in a mixture of water and ethanol (2:1), infuse for 48 hours at 25 °C, stirring periodically. Filter. Evaporate the extract in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C until a thick mass forms, then dry completely in a drying cabinet at 40 °C until powdery. Ensure the complete disappearance of ethanol odor. Permissible residual ethanol content — no more than 500 ppm.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): store in a dark, dry place at a temperature of 15–25 °C, protect from moisture and light. Shelf life — 36 months. After opening the package, use within 6 months.

Tincture — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Tincture): helminthiasis, trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, trichinellosis, toxocariasis, fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis, schistosomiasis, echinococcosis, intestinal amebiasis, dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, mucosal candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): 15–20 drops (diluted in 50 ml of boiled water) orally 2 times a day, 30 minutes before meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 25–30 drops 2 times a day for severe forms of schistosomiasis, opisthorchiasis, and chronic dermatophytosis.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): 35 drops 2 times a day, only under inpatient supervision, for resistant mixed parasitic infestations and fungal infections.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 drops once daily for 5 days, repeated every 6–8 months for at-risk individuals (agricultural, veterinary workers).

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): for children over 12 years old — 5–10 drops 2 times a day, pre-diluted in water. Use in children under 12 years is scientifically not registered.

Contraindications (Tincture): individual hypersensitivity, chronic alcoholism, liver diseases in the decompensation stage. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 12 years are not registered.

Side Effects (Tincture): in case of overdose — nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, increased heart rate.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight below 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for weight above 90 kg, increase by 10%.

Preparation method (Tincture): Ingredients per 100 ml of finished product: Diospyros mollis fruits — 20 g (dry), 70% ethanol — 100 ml.

Grind the raw material to 3–5 mm crumbs, place in a glass container, pour in ethanol, seal tightly with a lid. Infuse in a dark place at a temperature of 20–25 °C for 14 days, shaking daily. Upon completion, strain the tincture through dense gauze, squeeze out the raw material. Store in dark glass bottles.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): store at a temperature of 15–25 °C in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 36 months.

Oil Infusion — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Oil Infusion): dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, mucosal candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma, skin inflammatory processes of bacterial and fungal etiology.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): apply a thin layer to the affected area 2 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): apply 3–4 times a day for acute inflammatory skin lesions and fungal infections with pronounced clinical symptoms.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): up to 5 applications per day, course not exceeding 10 days, for extensive mycoses and pyodermas.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): 1 application per day to skin areas prone to fungal or bacterial infections, for 5–7 days every 3 months.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): topical use is allowed in children over 3 years old, 1–2 times a day on limited skin areas.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): individual hypersensitivity, open bleeding wounds. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): in case of overdose — skin irritation, itching, redness, contact dermatitis.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): Diospyros mollis Oil Infusion

Ingredients per 100 ml of product: Diospyros mollis fruits — 20 g (dry), coconut oil — 100 ml.

Grind the raw material to 3–5 mm crumbs, pour coconut oil over it in a glass container. Infuse in a water bath at a temperature of 45 °C for 4 hours, stirring periodically. Remove from the bath, cool, filter through gauze, squeeze out the remaining raw material. Pour into dark glass bottles.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): store in tightly sealed dark glass bottles at a temperature of 5–20 °C, protect from direct light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Ointment — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Ointment): dermatophytosis, cutaneous candidiasis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma, skin inflammatory processes of bacterial and fungal etiology, microbial eczema.

Standard Dosage (Ointment): apply a thin layer to the affected area 2 times a day, without rubbing, course 7–10 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): apply 3 times a day for pronounced inflammation and active fungal infection.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): up to 4 applications per day, course not exceeding 14 days, for chronic recurrent fungal skin infections.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): 1 application per day to skin areas prone to fungal or bacterial infections, for 5 days every 3 months.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): use is allowed in children over 3 years old, 1–2 times a day on limited skin areas.

Contraindications (Ointment): individual hypersensitivity, open bleeding wounds, deep skin lesions. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Ointment): in case of overdose — skin irritation, burning, redness, itching, contact dermatitis.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required.

Preparation method (Ointment): Ingredients per 100 g of finished product: Diospyros mollis fruit powder — 10 g, coconut oil — 60 g, beeswax — 30 g.

Melt coconut oil and beeswax in a water bath at 50 °C, add fruit powder, mix thoroughly until homogeneous. Remove from heat, filter through gauze while warm, pour into sterile jars.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): store in tightly sealed dark glass jars at a temperature of 5–20 °C, protect from light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 2 months.

Cream — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Cream): cutaneous candidiasis, dermatophytosis, microsporia, trichophytosis, pyoderma, staphyloderma, streptoderma, dry eczema, seborrheic dermatitis, inflammatory skin processes of bacterial or fungal etiology.

Standard Dosage (Cream): apply a thin layer to the affected area 2 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): 3 times a day for pronounced inflammatory changes and fungal skin infection.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): 4 times a day for chronic recurrent mycoses and dermatitis, course not exceeding 14 days.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): 1 time per day on problem skin areas for 5 days every 3 months.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): use is allowed in children over 3 years old, 1–2 times a day on limited skin areas.

Contraindications (Cream): individual hypersensitivity, open bleeding skin lesions. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Cream): in case of overdose — redness, itching, burning, skin peeling.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required.

Preparation method (Cream): Ingredients per 100 g of finished product: dry extract of Diospyros mollis fruits — 5 g, coconut oil — 30 g, jojoba oil — 10 g, distilled water — 50 g, emulsifier (beeswax) — 5 g.

Melt coconut oil, jojoba oil, and wax in a water bath at 50 °C. In a separate container, heat water to 50 °C. Pour the aqueous phase into the oil phase with constant stirring until an emulsion forms. Add the dry extract, mix until homogeneous. Pour into sterile tubes.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): store at a temperature of 5–20 °C in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 1 month.

Cosmetics — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Cosmetics): seborrheic dermatitis, skin hyperpigmentation, inflammatory acne, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, age spots, dry dermatitis, increased skin oiliness, enlarged pores, facial skin mycosis.

Standard Dosage (Cosmetics): apply 1–2 times a day to clean skin, in a thin layer, avoiding the eye area.

Enhanced Dosage (Cosmetics): 2–3 times a day for pronounced hyperpigmentation and active inflammatory acne eruptions.

Maximum Dosage (Cosmetics): 3 times a day for a course of up to 21 days for persistent hyperpigmentation and chronic seborrheic dermatitis.

Preventive Dosage (Cosmetics): 1 time per day for 7 days every 3 months to maintain an even skin tone and prevent recurrence of inflammatory acne.

Pediatric Dosage (Cosmetics): external use is allowed in adolescents over 14 years for acne, 1 time per day on affected areas.

Contraindications (Cosmetics): individual hypersensitivity, active open skin lesions, dermatitis in the acute stage with exudation. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Cosmetics): in case of overdose — dry skin, peeling, irritation, redness, contact dermatitis.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required.

Preparation method (Cosmetics): Ingredients per 100 g of product: dry extract of Diospyros mollis fruits — 3 g, coconut oil — 15 g, grape seed oil — 10 g, distilled water — 70 g, beeswax — 2 g.

Melt oils with wax in a water bath at 50 °C. Separately heat water to the same temperature. Combine the phases with constant stirring until a homogeneous emulsion is obtained. Add the extract, mix thoroughly. Pour into cosmetic tubes or jars.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cosmetics): store at a temperature of 5–20 °C in a dark place, protected from light. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 1 month.

Serum — Diospyros mollis

Indications (Serum): skin hyperpigmentation, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, inflammatory acne, enlarged pores, dry dermatitis, age-related skin changes (wrinkles), seborrheic dermatitis.

Standard Dosage (Serum): apply 1–2 times a day to clean, dry skin with light massaging movements until completely absorbed.

Enhanced Dosage (Serum): 2–3 times a day for pronounced pigmentation or active inflammatory acne.

Maximum Dosage (Serum): 3 times a day for a course of up to 30 days for persistent hyperpigmentation and signs of chronic seborrheic dermatitis.

Preventive Dosage (Serum): 1 time per day for 5–7 days every 3 months to maintain an even tone and prevent inflammatory skin processes.

Pediatric Dosage (Serum): external use is allowed in adolescents over 14 years for acne, 1 time per day.

Contraindications (Serum): individual hypersensitivity, active open skin lesions, acute inflammatory dermatitis with exudation. Scientific data on contraindications during pregnancy and lactation are not registered.

Side Effects (Serum): in case of overdose — irritation, redness, peeling, skin burning.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required.

Preparation method (Serum): Ingredients per 100 g of product: dry extract of Diospyros mollis fruits — 2 g, coconut oil — 10 g, jojoba oil — 5 g, aloe vera gel — 15 g, distilled water — 68 g.

Heat the aqueous phase (water + aloe gel) to 40 °C, melt the oil phase (coconut oil + jojoba oil) in a water bath at 40 °C. Combine the phases with intensive stirring, add the dry extract, mix until homogeneous. Pour into bottles with a dropper.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Serum): store in a refrigerator at a temperature of 4–8 °C, in dark bottles. Shelf life — 3 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Toxicity and Biosafety — Diospyros mollis

Currently, direct experimental data on LD₅₀ values for Diospyros mollis are absent. However, in the related and toxicologically studied close species — Diospyros mespiliformis — the following results were obtained:

• With oral administration to rats, the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) exceeds 5000 mg/kg body weight — no deaths were recorded, nor were any behavioral changes noted onlinelibrary.wiley.com+14pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov+14researchgate.net+14arocjournal.com+1.
• Additionally, it is indicated that with intraperitoneal administration, the LD₅₀ is approximately 774.6 mg/kg (for rats and mice), whereas for intramuscular administration in chickens, the LD₅₀ exceeds 5000 mg/kg researchgate.net.

Thus, Diospyros extracts demonstrate relatively low acute toxicity with oral use, but higher toxicity with parenteral routes (such as intraperitoneal administration).

Reference: Acute and sub-chronic toxicity evaluation of the crude methanolic extract of Diospyros mespiliformis — LD₅₀ > 5 g/kg oral, and LD₅₀ ≈ 774.6 mg/kg with intraperitoneal administratio ph04.tci-thaijo.org+9pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov+9pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov+9

Pharmacodynamics of Diospyros mollis

According to modern pharmacological reviews, the genus Diospyros, including D. mollis, contains diverse biochemical substances (flavonoids, terpenoids, xanthones, naphthoquinones) responsible for multiple physiological effects Wiley Online Library+11PMC+11ResearchGate+11.

The active components demonstrate antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects both systemically and locally. Targets include enzymes such as tyrosinase, xanthine oxidase, and collagenase, indicating the potential to modulate processes related to oxidative stress and inflammation ScienceDirect.

Flavonoids and phenolic compounds characteristic of D. mollis have the ability to neutralize free radicals, providing protection to cells from oxidative damage. Terpenoids and naphthoquinones may interact with the immune system, supporting an immunomodulatory effect, including influencing macrophage activity and lymphocyte proliferation ScienceDirect+5PMC+5ResearchGate+5.

Some structural elements found, such as naphthoquinones (diospyrin and others), discovered in other Diospyros species, can induce apoptosis and inhibit cell proliferation, implying a role in the regulation of cell growth and the cell cycle PMC. Collectively, this indicates a broad spectrum of pharmacodynamic effects of D. mollis, encompassing the nervous, immune, protective, and skin systems.

Pharmacokinetics of Diospyros mollis

No direct studies on the pharmacokinetics of D. mollis have been found; one can rely on generalized information about plant extracts and class compounds. With oral administration, flavonoids and terpenoids can be absorbed in the digestive tract, where their metabolism proceeds mainly in the liver, followed by excretion of metabolites via the biliary tract and kidneys. Polyphenolic compounds may be partially biotransformed by the intestinal microflora, contributing to the formation of active metabolites.

With transdermal administration (creams, ointments, serums), the active components function primarily locally, penetrating the epidermis and dermis, where they exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Systemic absorption is minimal, which reduces the potential burden on metabolism and excretion through organs.

With mucosal (vaginal, rectal, nasal, etc.) application, the constituent substances may partially penetrate the epithelium, providing local effects; systemic distribution remains limited. The mucosal microflora may also influence the biotransformation of active components.

The overall excretion of metabolites occurs primarily through the kidneys and liver. More lipophilic compounds may tend to accumulate in adipose tissues and cell membranes, and then be slowly released.

Thus, the pharmacokinetics of D. mollis is determined by the form of administration (systemic or local effect) and the properties of the main groups of compounds (flavonoids, terpenoids) — with an emphasis on minimal systemic accumulation with external use and active transformation with oral intake.

Mechanisms of Action — Diospyros mollis

The metabolites of the genus Diospyros, including D. mollis, are represented by diverse classes — isophylloquinones (e.g., diospyrin, plumbagin), triterpenoid compounds, and phenolic substances. These structures have the potential to interact with cellular signals and oxidative mechanisms. For example, naphthoquinones scavenge free radicals and can initiate oxidative stress, leading to the activation of caspases and cellular apoptosis at the mitochondrial level — mechanisms registered in other Diospyros species Wiley Online Library+15PMC+15ResearchGate+15.

Flavonoids and terpenoids can modulate enzyme systems such as tyrosinase, xanthine oxidase, and collagenase, which provides protection against oxidative damage, reduces inflammatory mediators, and preserves tissue structure, especially of the skin and mucous membranes ScienceDirectmdpi.com.

Furthermore, some triterpenes of the genus Diospyros (e.g., betulinic acid, lupeol) can morphologically influence the NF-κB and MAPK signaling cascades, leading to the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and modulation of immune cells — macrophages and neutrophils Wiley Online Library+15ScienceDirect+15PMC+15.

Thus, the mechanism of action of D. mollis includes a combination of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic effects at systemic and local levels, involving key cellular targets (enzymes, signaling cascades, immune effector cells).

Reference: PMCScienceDirect+1mdpi.com

Synergy of Diospyros mollis

Data on synergistic interactions specifically of D. mollis with other taxa are limited. However, within the genus Diospyros, it has been established that flavonoids, terpenoids, and naphthoquinones can enhance anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects when combined with other plant compounds. For example, the combination of naphthoquinones with triterpenoids may act additively, slowing down NF-κB signaling cascades and reducing the production of pro-inflammatory mediators; phenolic components such as quercetin or kaempferol (from other Diospyros species) can potentiate antioxidant defense through enhanced inactivation of free radicals ResearchGate+2Wiley Online Library+2.

Thus, the proposed synergy is based on the combination of:

• Additive antioxidant action — phenolic components + naphthoquinones.
• Potentiation of anti-inflammatory effects — triterpenes + naphthoquinones, through joint impact on NF-κB / MAPK cascades.
• Systemic and local modulation — interaction with immune mediators and enzymes.

Although specific combinations with other plants or substances have not yet been experimentally confirmed for D. mollis, the principles of synergy described above among related Diospyros compounds retain scientific validity based on the known mechanisms of other species.

Reference: PMCScienceDirect

Geography of Use and Folk Medicine — Diospyros mollis

Diospyros mollis is traditionally used in the countries of Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In Thai folk medicine, the plant is known as "ma-klua" and its fruits are primarily used to make powders and infusions. The powder is used externally and internally as part of complex mixtures, as well as in oil-based macerates. In the ethnobotanical practice of the peoples of central Thailand, D. mollis fruits are used for cleansing the body and maintaining general tone. In Laos and Cambodia, the plant is known as a component of herbal pastes and ointments used for the skin, and in some regions of Vietnam, as a dye for fabrics and an ingredient in traditional cosmetic formulations.

Historical mentions of the use of D. mollis are found in ancient Thai herbal books dating back to the 19th century, where it is mentioned as a plant possessing the "power of purification" and used in complex healing rituals. It was believed that the plant protects against evil spirits and "curses," for which its fruits were sometimes hung at the entrance to a dwelling or used as part of ritual amulets.

In the ritual practice of the peoples of northern Thailand, there are known ceremonies of fumigating premises with the smoke of dried parts of D. mollis, which, according to cultural beliefs, was supposed to cleanse the space and ward off diseases. Some ethnographic sources mention the use of the plant in initiation rites and festivals associated with agricultural cycles, where it served as a symbol of protection and strength.

In non-medical purposes, D. mollis was also used as a natural dye for fabrics in black-brown shades, which was common in the craft traditions of northern Thailand and Laos. This dyeing often had a ritual character, for example, in the manufacture of ritual clothing or fabric for ceremonies.