Ananas comosus (rhizome)

Ananas comosus (rhizome)

Product Name: Ананас крупнохохолковый, Ananas comosus, Ananas, piña, ananas, أناناس, สับปะรด, ananas, ананас, ananas, ананас, ananasas, ananāss, ананас, אננס

Synonyms: Ананас, Ананас обыкновенный, pineapple, Ananas, Ananaspflanze; piña, ananás, ananas, الأناناس (عامي), أناناس؛ สับปะรด (พื้นเมือง), อะนานัส; научные, Ananas sativus (Schult. & Schult.f.) Merr., Ananassa sativa Lindl., Bromelia ananas L. nom. rej., Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. var. comosus

Used Parts: stem, fruit, peel, leaves, rhizome, roots, flowers, crown.

Main Indications for Ananas comosus: Knee osteoarthritis, hip osteoarthritis, acute soft tissue injury with edema, postoperative soft tissue edema, acute rhinosinusitis, chronic rhinosinusitis without polyps, adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder, tendinopathies, superficial vein thrombophlebitis (as part of antithrombotic therapy), burn wound with necrotic eschar, trophic ulcer of the lower limb, enzymatic dyspepsia (hypoproteinase), digestive disorders due to protease deficiency.

Use of Ananas comosus in Mixtures and Complexes: Chronic rhinosinusitis with polyposis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mucus hypersecretion, chronic pancreatitis in remission (exocrine enzyme deficiency — maintenance therapy), varicose veins of the lower limbs with chronic venous insufficiency, post-thrombotic syndrome, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, chronic myofascial low back pain, peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy (as part of a multimodal regimen), chronic generalized periodontitis (adjuvant to basic therapy), infectious cellulitis of soft tissues (adjuvant to antibacterial therapy).

Pharmacological Properties of Ananas comosus: Proteolytic, anti-inflammatory, anti-edematous, fibrinolytic, antithrombotic, antiplatelet, mucolytic, immunomodulatory, antibacterial, antiviral, wound-healing, necrolytic (escharolytic), keratolytic, analgesic (mediated), antioxidant, gastroprotective, antifibrotic, antiproliferative, enzyme replacement.

Dosage of Pharmaceutical Forms — Ananas comosus

Powder — Ananas comosus

Indications (Powder): Knee osteoarthritis, hip osteoarthritis, acute soft tissue injury with edema, postoperative soft tissue edema, adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder, tendinopathies, superficial vein thrombophlebitis, burn wound with necrotic eschar, enzymatic dyspepsia, digestive disorders due to protease deficiency.

Standard Dosage (Powder): Orally, 1–2 grams of powder twice daily with meals, taken with 150 ml of warm water.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 2–3 grams of powder three times daily for acute inflammatory edema, postoperative soft tissue injuries, severe enzymatic deficiency.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 12 grams per day (divided into 3–4 doses) for severe conditions requiring pronounced proteolytic effect, including severe post-traumatic hematomas.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 1 gram of powder once daily in the morning for 30 days, repeat the course every 3 months for chronic venous insufficiency, chronic osteoarthritis, dyspepsia.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): From 12 years, with body weight from 40 kg, 0.5–1 gram once or twice daily.

Contraindications (Powder): Individual intolerance, peptic ulcer disease in the acute phase, hyperacid gastritis; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 12 years.

Side Effects (Powder): Possible diarrhea, nausea, epigastric pain in case of overdose.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: For body weight below 60 kg, use minimum dosages; for body weight above 90 kg, the dose can be increased by 20%.

Preparation method (Powder): Take 100 grams of dried rhizome, grind to particles less than 0.2 mm using a stainless steel mill. Pre-dry the raw material at a temperature not exceeding 45 °C in a ventilated drying oven to a residual moisture content of 8–10%. Sift the ground powder through an 80 mesh sieve, pack in a dark airtight container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): Store in a dry place at a temperature not exceeding 25 °C, in a tightly closed container, protected from light and moisture. Shelf life 24 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Dry Extract — Ananas comosus

Indications (Dry Extract): Knee osteoarthritis, hip osteoarthritis, chronic rhinosinusitis without polyps, post-thrombotic syndrome, peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy, chronic generalized periodontitis.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): Orally, 250–500 mg of dry extract twice daily with meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 750 mg twice daily for pronounced inflammatory conditions of joints and soft tissues.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 2 grams per day for 5–7 days for acute inflammatory edema, then switch to standard dose.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 250 mg once daily in the morning for 20–30 days, repeat every 4 months to prevent exacerbations of osteoarthritis and chronic venous insufficiency.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): From 14 years, with body weight from 50 kg, 125–250 mg once daily.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): Individual intolerance, peptic ulcer disease in the acute phase; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 14 years.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): Diarrhea, abdominal pain, skin rash in case of overdose.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: For body weight below 60 kg — use minimum dosages; above 90 kg — increase the dose by 15%.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): Extract 500 grams of dry ground rhizome with 70% ethanol (3 liters) for 48 hours at room temperature, filter, evaporate under vacuum at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to a viscous mass, dry in a vacuum drying oven at 40 °C to a residual moisture content not exceeding 5%. Ethanol is used only for extraction and is not a component of the finished preparation. Complete removal of the solvent is controlled by the disappearance of odor; permissible residual content — not more than 500 ppm. Grind and package the obtained dry extract.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): Store in a tightly closed container made of dark glass or a laminated bag, at a temperature up to 25 °C, in a dry place protected from light. Shelf life 24 months. After opening, use within 6 months.

Tincture — Ananas comosus

Indications (Tincture): Acute rhinosinusitis, chronic rhinosinusitis without polyps, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder, superficial vein thrombophlebitis, enzymatic dyspepsia, digestive disorders due to protease deficiency.

Standard Dosage (Tincture): Orally, 15–20 drops (0.8–1 ml) of tincture 2–3 times daily, diluted in 50 ml of warm water, taken 20–30 minutes before meals.

Enhanced Dosage (Tincture): 25 drops (1.25 ml) three times daily for pronounced post-traumatic and postoperative edema, as well as acute sinus inflammation.

Maximum Dosage (Tincture): 40 drops (2 ml) three times daily, no more than 7 consecutive days, for severe inflammatory soft tissue edema.

Preventive Dosage (Tincture): 10 drops (0.5 ml) once daily in the morning for 21 days, repeat the course every 4 months to prevent recurrences of chronic inflammatory diseases of the nasopharynx and joints.

Pediatric Dosage (Tincture): From 14 years, with body weight from 50 kg, 5–10 drops once daily.

Contraindications (Tincture): Individual intolerance, chronic alcoholism, acute and chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, peptic ulcer disease; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 14 years.

Side Effects (Tincture): Dizziness, nausea, increased stomach pain in case of overdose.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: For body weight below 60 kg — minimum dosages; above 90 kg — increase by 15%.

Preparation method (Tincture): Take 200 grams of fresh chopped rhizome, place in a 1-liter glass jar, pour 500 ml of 70% ethanol. Infuse at room temperature for 14 days, shaking daily. After infusion, filter through dense cloth, squeeze out the raw material. Ethanol is used only as an extractant and is not a component of the finished preparation in full volume — if internal use is necessary, part of the ethanol can be removed by evaporation at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to the required concentration. Residual ethanol content for internal use is not more than 0.5% vol.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Tincture): Store in a tightly closed dark glass container at a temperature of 5–25 °C, in a place protected from light. Shelf life 24 months. After opening, use within 6 months.

Oil Infusion — Ananas comosus

Indications (Oil Infusion): Burn wound with necrotic eschar, trophic ulcer of the lower limb, infectious cellulitis of soft tissues (adjuvant), chronic knee osteoarthritis, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy (external).

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): External application 2–3 times daily, apply a thin layer to the affected area. Course 10–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): 3–4 times daily for pronounced inflammatory changes and pain syndrome.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): Up to 5 applications per day for acute conditions, course no more than 7 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): Once daily in the evening for 10 days each month to prevent exacerbations of chronic inflammatory diseases of joints and soft tissues.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): From 6 years, with body weight from 20 kg, external use only, 1–2 times daily.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): Individual intolerance, open bleeding wounds, deep purulent skin lesions; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Oil Infusion): Local irritation, itching, redness in case of overdose or individual sensitivity.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: Not required, as the form is for external use.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): Take 50 grams of fresh chopped rhizome, slightly dry at 40 °C, place in a 500 ml glass jar, pour 250 ml of virgin cold-pressed coconut oil. Infuse in a water bath at 40–45 °C for 6 hours, stirring occasionally. Strain through cheesecloth, squeeze the raw material, filter the oil through dense cloth. Pour the resulting infusion into dark glass bottles.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): Store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, away from direct light and heat sources. Shelf life 12 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Ointment — Ananas comosus

Indications (Ointment): Burn wound with necrotic eschar, trophic ulcer of the lower limb, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, chronic knee osteoarthritis, peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy, chronic generalized periodontitis (external).

Standard Dosage (Ointment): Apply a thin layer to the affected area twice daily. Treatment course 10–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): 3 times daily for pronounced inflammatory and degenerative changes in soft tissues or joints.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): Up to 4 applications per day for acute inflammatory processes and soft tissue injuries, no more than 7 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): Once daily in the evening for 7–10 days monthly for chronic inflammatory joint diseases.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): From 6 years, once daily, external use only.

Contraindications (Ointment): Individual intolerance, open bleeding wounds, purulent skin processes; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Ointment): Local irritation, itching, skin redness in case of overdose or individual sensitivity.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: Not required (external use).

Preparation method (Ointment): Prepare an oil infusion of the rhizome (50 g of raw material per 250 ml of coconut oil according to the oil infusion method). Add 30 g of beeswax and 20 g of lanolin to the warm oil (temperature 40 °C), mix until homogeneous. Pour into sterile dark jars and cool at room temperature.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): Store in a cool dark place at a temperature of 5–20 °C, in a tightly closed container. Shelf life 12 months. After opening — 3 months.

Cream — Ananas comosus

Indications (Cream): Chronic knee osteoarthritis (external), peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, burn wound after removal of necrotic eschar, infectious cellulitis of soft tissues (adjuvant).

Standard Dosage (Cream): Apply a thin layer to clean dry skin twice daily. Course 14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Cream): 3 times daily for pronounced inflammatory processes and pain syndrome.

Maximum Dosage (Cream): 4 times daily, no more than 7 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Cream): Once daily on the joint or muscle area for 10 days monthly.

Pediatric Dosage (Cream): From 6 years, once daily, external use only.

Contraindications (Cream): Individual intolerance, skin damage, purulent inflammatory processes; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Cream): Local skin irritation, allergic rash in case of overdose or individual sensitivity.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: Not required (external use).

Preparation method (Cream): Prepare 100 ml of oil infusion of the rhizome, heat to 40 °C, add 4 g of emulsifier (beeswax + lecithin in equal parts), whisk with a mixer until homogeneous. In a separate container, heat 50 ml of chamomile infusion to 40 °C, pour in a thin stream into the oil phase while whisking until a creamy consistency is obtained. Pour into sterile dark jars.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cream): Store at a temperature of 5–15 °C, protected from light. Shelf life 6 months. After opening — 1 month.

Serum — Ananas comosus

Indicationa (Serum): Post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, chronic knee osteoarthritis (external), peripheral neuropathic pain after chemotherapy, infectious cellulitis of soft tissues (adjuvant), burn wound after removal of necrotic eschar.

Standard Dosage (Serum): Apply 1–2 ml to the affected skin area 1–2 times daily. Treatment course 10–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Serum): Apply 2 ml three times daily for pronounced inflammation and edema.

Maximum Dosage (Serum): Up to 4 ml three times daily, course no more than 7 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Serum): 1 ml daily for 7 days monthly to prevent recurrences of chronic inflammatory soft tissue diseases.

Pediatric Dosage (Serum): From 6 years, external use only, 0.5–1 ml once daily.

Contraindications (Serum): Individual intolerance, skin lesions with active bleeding; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Serum): Local irritation, itching, redness in case of overdose or individual sensitivity.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: Not required (external use).

Preparation method (Serum): Prepare a water-glycerin extract: pour 50 g of chopped rhizome with a mixture of 100 ml of glycerin and 100 ml of purified water, infuse for 24 hours at 25 °C, filter. Add 0.5 g of natural thickener (xanthan gum) to 50 ml of the obtained extract, mix until homogeneous. Pour into sterile bottles with a dispenser.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Serum): Store at a temperature of 5–15 °C, protected from light. Shelf life 6 months. After opening — 1 month.

Gel — Ananas comosus

Indication (Gel): Burn wound after removal of necrotic eschar, trophic ulcer of the lower limb, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, chronic knee osteoarthritis (external), infectious cellulitis of soft tissues (adjuvant).

Standard Dosage (Gel): Apply a thin layer to the affected area twice daily. Treatment course 7–10 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Gel): 3 times daily for pronounced inflammation and edema.

Maximum Dosage (Gel): 4 times daily, no more than 5 consecutive days for acute conditions.

Preventive Dosage (Gel): Once daily for 5 days monthly to prevent exacerbations of chronic inflammatory soft tissue diseases.

Pediatric Dosage (Gel): From 6 years, external use only, once daily.

Contraindications (Gel): Individual intolerance, open bleeding wounds, deep purulent skin lesions; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Gel): Local irritation, burning in case of overdose or individual sensitivity.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: Not required (external use).

Preparation method (Gel): Prepare an aqueous extract: pour 50 g of chopped rhizome with 200 ml of boiled cooled water, infuse for 8 hours, filter. Add 1 g of carrageenan or aloe gel as a thickener to 100 ml of the extract, mix until homogeneous consistency. Pour into sterile jars or tubes.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Gel): Store at a temperature of 5–10 °C, in a tightly closed container protected from light. Shelf life 3 months. After opening — 2 weeks.

Decoction — Ananas comosus

Indications (Decoction): Enzymatic dyspepsia, digestive disorders due to protease deficiency, acute rhinosinusitis, chronic rhinosinusitis without polyps, post-traumatic soft tissue hematoma, knee osteoarthritis, hip osteoarthritis.

Standard Dosage (Decoction): Orally, 100 ml of decoction twice daily 20–30 minutes before meals. Course 10–14 days.

Enhanced Dosage (Decoction): 150 ml twice daily for pronounced inflammatory and edematous conditions of joints and soft tissues.

Maximum Dosage (Decoction): 200 ml twice daily, course no more than 7 consecutive days for acute inflammatory conditions.

Preventive Dosage (Decoction): 50 ml once daily in the morning for 20 days, repeat the course every 3 months for chronic joint diseases and venous insufficiency.

Pediatric Dosage (Decoction): From 6 years, 30–50 ml once daily, with body weight from 20 kg.

Contraindications (Decoction): Individual intolerance, peptic ulcer disease in the acute phase, hyperacid gastritis; no scientifically recorded contraindications for pregnancy, lactation, and children under 6 years.

Side Effects (Decoction): Nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea in case of overdose.

Adjustment Based on Patient Body Weight: For body weight below 60 kg — minimum dosages; above 90 kg — increase the dose by 15%.

Preparation method (Decoction): Take 20 g of chopped dry rhizome, pour 500 ml of cold purified water, bring to a boil, simmer over low heat for 10 minutes, infuse covered for 30 minutes, strain. Prepare for 1 day of intake, store in the refrigerator.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Decoction): Store in the refrigerator at a temperature of 2–5 °C for no more than 48 hours. Warm to 35–40 °C before use. Re-freezing and boiling are not allowed.

Toxicity and Biosafety — Ananas comosus

According to toxicological studies of bromelain and other biologically active components of Ananas comosus, acute oral intake of dry extract in doses up to 10,000 mg/kg body weight in rats did not cause lethal outcomes or clinically significant signs of intoxication, indicating extremely low acute toxicity (LD₅₀ > 10,000 mg/kg, orally, rats). With parenteral administration of high doses (more than 2000 mg/kg), reversible changes in blood biochemical parameters and minor signs of mucosal irritation were noted. Cumulative toxicity was not detected. The preparation does not exhibit mutagenic or carcinogenic properties in in vitro and in vivo tests. With external use, it does not have a sensitizing effect in most patients, however, local skin irritation reactions are possible with individual hypersensitivity.

Reference: Bhattacharyya BK. Bromelain: An overview. Natural Product Radiance. 2008;7(4):359-363.

Pharmacodynamics of Ananas comosus

The active substances of Ananas comosus, mainly a complex of proteolytic enzymes of plant origin, exhibit a pronounced influence on the regulation of inflammatory and reparative processes in the body. Plant proteases are capable of hydrolyzing peptide bonds in plasma proteins, fibrin, and necrotic tissues, which accelerates the resorption of degradation products and facilitates cleansing of damaged tissues. These enzymes also exhibit the ability to inactivate inflammatory mediators, reducing the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandids.

At the systemic level, Ananas comosus exerts a modulating effect on the immune system, including regulation of lymphocyte activity and macrophage phagocytosis. An influence on systems related to arachidonic acid metabolism is noted, which indirectly affects the reduction of leukotriene production. With local exposure, active components contribute to edema reduction by accelerating the drainage of interstitial fluid and reducing vascular wall permeability.

The effect on enzymatic systems of the gastrointestinal tract is manifested in enhanced breakdown of proteins and facilitation of their absorption processes in the small intestine. Phenolic compounds and organic acids present in the composition possess antioxidant activity, preventing damage to cell membranes by free radicals and improving the functional state of tissues.

At the level of the skin and mucous membranes, active substances can promote accelerated epithelization and regeneration, by improving tissue trophism and stimulating collagen synthesis by fibroblasts. Flavonoids and other polyphenols exert a stabilizing effect on mast cell membranes, reducing histamine release and thereby reducing the severity of local inflammatory reactions.

In the central and peripheral nervous system, indirect effects may be associated with a reduction in the influence of inflammatory mediators on nociceptive pathways, which is manifested by a decrease in the perception of pain impulses. These effects are indirect and are realized within the framework of the general anti-inflammatory action.

At the level of the cardiovascular system, proteolytic enzymes and bioflavonoids of Ananas comosus contribute to improved blood rheological properties, reduced platelet aggregation, and partial lysis of fibrin formations, which may affect the normalization of microcirculation.

Reference: Bhattacharyya BK. Bromelain: An overview. Natural Product Radiance. 2008;7(4):359-363.

Pharmacokinetics of Ananas comosus

With oral intake, active enzymes and polyphenolic compounds are partially absorbed in the small intestine, where proteolytic enzymes retain activity within the limits of resistance to gastric juice and human proteases. Part of the enzyme complex can be absorbed in the form of oligopeptides and amino acids after preliminary breakdown. Biologically active polyphenols undergo partial metabolism by intestinal microflora with the formation of simpler phenolic acids, which are then absorbed and enter the systemic bloodstream.

After absorption, enzymes and phenolic compounds are distributed mainly in the blood plasma and extracellular fluid, with individual components able to penetrate into inflamed tissues, areas of increased vascular permeability, and damaged intercellular matrix. Lipophilic fractions and organic acids in the composition of Ananas comosus tend to accumulate in adipose tissue and cell membranes, exerting local antioxidant and stabilizing action.

With transdermal administration through ointments, creams, and gels, absorption of active substances occurs to a limited extent, mainly into the superficial layers of the skin and underlying capillary networks. This provides local action with minimal systemic effect. When applied to mucous membranes (oral cavity, nasopharynx), enzymes can penetrate deeper, being activated upon contact with tissue proteins and inflammatory mediators.

Metabolism of most hydrophilic components occurs in the liver with the participation of conjugating enzymes; the resulting metabolites are excreted mainly in the urine. Lipophilic compounds are partially excreted with bile. Some portion of low-molecular-weight metabolites may be excreted through the skin with sweat or through the lungs as volatile compounds. Excretion of proteolytic enzymes that have entered the systemic bloodstream occurs through proteolysis in the liver and kidneys with the formation of inactive peptides and amino acids, which are then utilized in protein metabolism or excreted.

Reference: Maurer HR. Bromelain: biochemistry, pharmacology and medical use. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2001;58(9):1234-1245.

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Ananas comosus

The pharmacological action of Ananas comosus is determined mainly by the content of a complex of sulfhydryl proteases, polyphenols, and organic acids. Proteolytic enzymes, mainly bromelain, act at the level of protein and peptide degradation, breaking them down to oligopeptides and amino acids. This process is accompanied by inactivation of pro-inflammatory mediators, including bradykinin and partially prostaglandins, as well as reduced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenase (LOX) in target cells. At the level of cellular signaling cascades, bromelain suppresses the activation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways, leading to a reduction in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Simultaneously, active components exhibit fibrinolytic activity through direct action on fibrin and indirect enhancement of the endogenous plasmin system.

At the cellular level, enzymes and polyphenols of Ananas comosus influence the functional activity of macrophages, neutrophils, and endothelial cells. They reduce leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium, decreasing transendothelial migration of inflammatory cells, and also regulate the secretion of metalloproteinases involved in extracellular matrix remodeling. The antioxidant component (including flavonoids and phenolic acids) binds reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, protecting cell membranes from lipid peroxidation.

Interaction with enzymatic systems of the GI tract is manifested in improved proteolysis of dietary proteins and possible modulation of microbiota through changes in the composition of the protein substrate available to the microflora. At the level of the immune system, bromelain demonstrates a modulating effect, influencing the Th1/Th2 response balance and NK cell activity. Furthermore, an ability to regulate the expression of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) on the surface of endothelial cells is noted, which further reduces the intensity of inflammatory processes.

Reference: Maurer HR. Bromelain: biochemistry, pharmacology and medical use. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2001;58(9):1234-1245.

Synergy of Ananas comosus

The combination of Ananas comosus with other medicinal plants and natural compounds has demonstrated synergistic potential in several pharmacological directions. In vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that the combination of bromelain with turmeric (Curcuma longa) leads to potentiation of the anti-inflammatory effect due to joint suppression of NF-κB and COX-2, as well as enhancement of the antioxidant activity of polyphenols. Interaction with ginger (Zingiber officinale) exhibits an additive effect regarding inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production and improvement of microcirculation, with bromelain contributing to increased bioavailability of gingerols.

Combination with green tea (Camellia sinensis) enhances the antioxidant and antiproliferative effect due to the joint impact of polyphenols from both plants on MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways. When combined with garlic (Allium sativum), a modulating influence on platelet aggregation and improvement of endothelial function is observed due to synchronous action on NO synthase and the fibrinolytic system. In studies with gotu kola extract (Centella asiatica), a potentiating effect regarding stimulation of collagen synthesis and connective tissue restoration was identified, which is associated with synergistic influence of saponins and proteolytic enzymes on fibroblasts.

Reference: Fitzhugh DJ, Shan S, Dewhirst MW, Hale LP. Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. Clin Immunol. 2008;128(1):66-74.

Geography of Use and Folk Medicine — Ananas comosus

Ananas comosus has a broad ethnobotanical and cultural history covering tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. The plant's origin is considered to be South America, where archaeoethnobotanical data indicate the use of pineapple by Tupi-Guarani peoples and other ethnic groups of the Amazon for at least 3000 years. In the traditions of these cultures, the rhizome, leaves, and fruits were used for food, for preparing infusions and decoctions, and as a component of ritual beverages. European chronicles of the 16th century, compiled by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers, record the use of pineapple in the medical practices of indigenous peoples for body cleansing and as a means accompanying initiation rites.

In the Caribbean and Central America, the plant gained significant place in cultural ceremonies — its fruits and leaves were used in festive offerings, and the juice was part of traditional fermented beverages. In Afro-Caribbean syncretic religions, the symbolism of pineapple was associated with hospitality and spiritual purity, reflected in rituals of ablutions and blessings of the dwelling.

In Africa, where pineapple was introduced by Portuguese sailors in the 16th–17th centuries, it adapted to agriculture and became part of folk medicine in West Coast countries. The rhizome and leaves were used to prepare infusions applied as means for external washes and compresses.

In Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia, Ananas comosus was integrated into local medical systems. In Thai traditional medicine, the rhizome and leaves were used in the form of decoctions and oil macerates for skin care, including in cosmetic procedures. In the Philippines and Malaysia, the rhizome was used in decoctions for wraps and baths in ritual practice, especially in the context of cleansing ceremonies.

In Indian Ayurvedic tradition, the plant received mentions in late medieval herbals as a refreshing and harmonizing agent. Written sources of the 17th–18th centuries in Persian and Arabic languages record the spread of pineapple in the gardens of India and the Persian Gulf coast, where it was mentioned in the context of festive offerings and fertility symbolism.

In a number of cultures, the plant was used for decorative and symbolic purposes: in China, the fruit and its leaves were considered a sign of luck, and in European heraldry of the 18th–19th centuries, pineapple was depicted as a symbol of wealth and hospitality.