Avicennia marina

Acmella oleracea

Product Name: Акмелла олерацея, Acmella oleracea, Parakresse, Berro del Pará, Brède mafane / Cresson de Pará, نبات وجع الأسنان, ผักคราดหัวแหวน, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea, Acmella oleracea

Synonyms: Spilanthes oleracea; Spilanthes acmella (sensu auct.); Toothache plant,Paracress,Electric daisy; Buzz buttons,Jambu, Parakresse,Zahnkraut, Berro del Pará, Hierba de los dientes, Brède mafane, Cresson de Pará, نبات وجع الأسنان; ผักคราดหัวแหวน

Main Indications for Acmella oleracea: odontalgia, xerostomia, aphthous stomatitis, gingivitis, oral candidiasis, local neuralgic pain, inflammation of the oral mucosa, spasmodic pain of smooth muscles, malarial fever (as part of supportive therapy in traditional practices), functional diarrhea (supportive use).

Use of Acmella oleracea in Mixtures and Complexes: chronic periodontitis, odontogenic soft tissue infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, viral upper respiratory tract infections, malaria (combined regimens in traditional medical systems), dermatomycoses, candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes, infectious diarrhea, dyspepsia of inflammatory origin.

Pharmacological Properties of Acmella oleracea: local analgesic (anesthetic), sialogogue, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiprotozoal (antiplasmodial), antioxidant, vasodilatory, diuretic, immunomodulatory, insecticidal, larvicidal, repellent.

Dosage of Pharmacological Forms — Acmella oleracea

Powder — Acmella oleracea

Indications (Powder): odontalgia, xerostomia, aphthous stomatitis, gingivitis, oral candidiasis, inflammation of the oral mucosa, local neuralgic pain, dermatomycosis, candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes.

Standard Dosage (Powder): 0.5–1 g of powder orally 2 times a day after meals, taken with warm water, or topically 0.5 g on the affected area of the mucosa or skin 2–3 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Powder): 1.5 g orally 2 times a day for pronounced gingivitis, acute stomatitis, intense odontalgia. Use for no more than 7 consecutive days.

Maximum Dosage (Powder): 2 g orally 2 times a day in cases of resistant pain syndrome of dental origin under specialist supervision. No more than 3 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Powder): 0.3–0.5 g orally once a day for a course of 14 days, repeated after 3 months, for chronic gingivitis, recurrent stomatitis, predisposition to oral candidiasis, patients with orthodontic appliances.

Pediatric Dosage (Powder): from 7 years, body weight from 25 kg, orally 0.2–0.3 g 1–2 times a day, topically 0.1–0.2 g on the mucosa or skin. Data on use in children under 7 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Powder): individual hypersensitivity, severe forms of arterial hypotension, active ulcerative lesions of the stomach and duodenum. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 7 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Powder): in case of overdose — paresthesia of the mucosa, increased salivation, irritation of mucous membranes, nausea.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight less than 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for body weight more than 90 kg, increase the dose by 10%.

Preparation method (Powder): For 100 g of finished product: fresh or dried flower heads 100 g. Grind the raw material, dry at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C in a dark, ventilated room until residual moisture is 8–10%. Grind into a powder to a particle size of less than 0.2 mm. Sift through a fine sieve. Package in an airtight container.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Powder): store in a dry place, protected from light, at a temperature up to 25 °C, relative air humidity not exceeding 60%, away from sources of electromagnetic radiation. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 6 months.

Dry Extract — Acmella oleracea

Indication (Dry Extract): odontalgia, xerostomia, gingivitis, aphthous stomatitis, oral candidiasis, local neuralgic pain, dermatomycosis, candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes, inflammation of the oral mucosa.

Standard Dosage (Dry Extract): 200–400 mg orally 2 times a day after meals, topically in ointments 2–5%.

Enhanced Dosage (Dry Extract): 500–600 mg orally 2 times a day for acute inflammation of the oral mucosa, pronounced gingivitis, intense odontalgia. Topically — 10% in ointments and creams for severe dermatomycoses and skin candidiasis. Course no more than 10 days.

Maximum Dosage (Dry Extract): 800 mg orally 2 times a day for acute pain of dental origin and intensive inflammatory processes of the mucosa, strictly under specialist supervision, no more than 3 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Dry Extract): 100–200 mg orally once a day for 14 days, repeated after 3 months, for chronic gingivitis, recurrent stomatitis, patients with permanent dentures or braces.

Pediatric Dosage (Dry Extract): from 7 years, body weight from 25 kg — 50–100 mg orally 1–2 times a day. Data on use in children under 7 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Dry Extract): individual intolerance, severe hypotension, active ulcerative lesions of the stomach and duodenum. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 7 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Dry Extract): in case of overdose — nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, irritation of mucous membranes, dizziness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight less than 60 kg — reduce the dose by 20%; for body weight more than 90 kg — increase the dose by 10%.

Preparation method (Dry Extract): For 100 g of product: dried flower heads 500 g, 70% ethanol — 2 L (for extraction only, not a component of the finished preparation). Pour ethanol over the ground raw material, infuse for 7 days at room temperature, stirring daily. Filter, evaporate the ethanol in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to a thick residue, then dry completely in a vacuum drying oven to a powdery state. Control indicator for ethanol removal — complete disappearance of odor. Permissible residual ethanol content ≤500 ppm.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Dry Extract): store in an airtight container, protected from light, at a temperature up to 25 °C, relative air humidity not exceeding 60%. Shelf life — 24 months. After opening, use within 3 months.

Alcohol Tincture — Acmella oleracea

Indications (Alcohol Tincture): odontalgia, xerostomia, aphthous stomatitis, gingivitis, oral candidiasis, local neuralgic pain, inflammation of the oral mucosa, dermatomycosis, candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes.

Standard Dosage (Alcohol Tincture): orally 10–15 drops 2 times a day, diluted in 50 ml of warm water, topically — applications on the mucosa or skin 1–2 times a day (5–10 drops on a gauze pad).

Enhanced Dosage (Alcohol Tincture): orally 20 drops 2 times a day for pronounced odontalgia, acute gingivitis, local neuralgia. Topically — up to 15 drops per application for intensive inflammations of the oral mucosa, course no more than 7 days.

Maximum Dosage (Alcohol Tincture): orally 25 drops 2 times a day for severe toothaches and acute stomatitis, no more than 3 consecutive days. Topically — up to 20 drops per application for severe skin mycoses.

Preventive Dosage (Alcohol Tincture): orally 5–10 drops once a day for 10 days, repeated after 3 months, for chronic gingivitis, recurrent stomatitis, patients with orthopedic dental appliances.

Pediatric Dosage (Alcohol Tincture): from 12 years — 3–5 drops orally 1–2 times a day, pre-diluted in water. Data on use in children under 12 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Alcohol Tincture): individual intolerance, alcoholism, liver diseases, severe hypotension, peptic ulcer disease in the acute phase. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 12 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Alcohol Tincture): in case of overdose — nausea, dizziness, irritation of mucous membranes, increased salivation.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: for body weight less than 60 kg, reduce the dose by 20%; for body weight more than 90 kg, increase the dose by 10%.

Preparation method (Alcohol Tincture): For 100 ml: dried flower heads 20 g, 70% ethanol — 100 ml (for extraction only, not a component of the finished preparation). Grind the raw material, pour ethanol over it, infuse for 10 days at room temperature in a dark place, shaking daily. Filter, then evaporate in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C to the desired concentration. Control indicator for ethanol removal — complete disappearance of odor. Permissible residual ethanol content ≤500 ppm.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Alcohol Tincture): store in a tightly closed dark glass container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Oil Infusion — Acmella oleracea

Indications (Oil Infusion): odontalgia, gingivitis, aphthous stomatitis, inflammation of the oral mucosa, dermatomycosis, skin candidiasis, skin cracks, dry skin, local inflammatory dermatoses.

Standard Dosage (Oil Infusion): apply topically in a thin layer to affected areas of skin or mucosa 1–2 times a day, for gum massage — 1–2 drops on a finger, rub in for 1 minute.

Enhanced Dosage (Oil Infusion): topically up to 3–4 times a day for intensive inflammatory skin processes, for acute forms of candidiasis of the oral and gum mucosa. Course up to 10 days.

Maximum Dosage (Oil Infusion): topically up to 5 times a day for severe inflammatory dermatoses, no more than 5 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Oil Infusion): topically once a day at night for 7 days, repeated after 2 months, for chronic gingivitis, predisposition to dry skin, cracks, and inflammation of the oral mucosa.

Pediatric Dosage (Oil Infusion): from 3 years — topically once a day, minimal amount (1 drop on the affected area). Data on use in children under 3 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Oil Infusion): Individual hypersensitivity, acute purulent skin lesions, severe allergic reaction to vegetable oils. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 3 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects: in case of overdose — local skin irritation, hyperemia, burning.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required, as the form is applied topically.

Preparation method (Oil Infusion): For 100 ml: dried flower heads 20 g, coconut oil 100 ml. Grind the raw material, place in a glass container, pour coconut oil over it, infuse in a water bath at a temperature of 40–45 °C for 6 hours, stirring periodically. Cool, filter through gauze, pour into a dark bottle.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Oil Infusion): store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, away from direct sunlight. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Cosmetic Oil — Acmella oleracea

Indications (Cosmetic Oil): expression lines, dry skin, decreased skin elasticity, local inflammatory dermatoses, skin irritation, hyperkeratosis, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.

Standard Dosage (Cosmetic Oil): apply 1–2 drops to cleansed facial or body skin, distributing evenly with light massage movements, 1–2 times a day.

Enhanced Dosage (Cosmetic Oil): apply 3 times a day to areas with pronounced dry skin or deep wrinkles, for intensive post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation. Course up to 30 days.

Maximum Dosage (Cosmetic Oil): apply up to 4 times a day for severe dry skin or pronounced dermal dehydration, no more than 14 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Cosmetic Oil): apply once a day at night for 21 days, repeated after 2 months, for chronic dry skin, early signs of photoaging, decreased skin turgor in patients over 35 years old.

Pediatric Dosage (Cosmetic Oil): from 6 years — apply 1 drop to an area of dry skin once a day. Data on use in children under 6 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Cosmetic Oil): individual hypersensitivity, acute purulent skin lesions, active dermatological infections. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 6 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Cosmetic Oil): in case of overdose — skin irritation, burning, temporary redness.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required, as the form is applied externally.

Preparation method (Cosmetic Oil): For 100 ml: dried flower heads 10 g, coconut oil 70 ml, jojoba oil 30 ml. Grind the raw material, place in a glass container, pour the oil mixture over it, infuse in a water bath at a temperature of 40–45 °C for 4 hours, stirring periodically. Cool, filter through gauze, pour into dark bottles with a dropper.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cosmetic Oil): store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, in a place protected from sunlight. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Ointment — Acmella oleracea

Indication (Ointment): odontalgia (topically in the gum area), gingivitis, aphthous stomatitis, inflammation of the oral mucosa, dermatomycosis, skin candidiasis, local inflammatory dermatoses, skin cracks, dry skin.

Standard Dosage (Ointment): apply a thin layer to the affected area 2 times a day, for inflammations of the oral mucosa — applications 1–2 times a day (0.5 g of ointment).

Enhanced Dosage (Ointment): apply 3 times a day for pronounced skin inflammation, local mycoses, or mucosal candidiasis, course no more than 10 days.

Maximum Dosage (Ointment): apply up to 4 times a day for severe inflammatory dermatoses and resistant skin mycoses, no more than 5 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Ointment): Apply once a day at night for 7 days, repeated after 2 months, for predisposition to dry skin and cracks, chronic gingivitis, recurrent stomatitis.

Pediatric Dosage (Ointment): From 3 years — topically once a day, minimal amount (0.2–0.3 g on an area of skin or mucosa). Data on use in children under 3 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Ointment): Individual hypersensitivity, acute purulent lesions of the skin and mucous membranes, severe allergic reaction to the ointment base components. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 3 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Ointment): In case of overdose — local irritation of the skin or mucous membranes, burning, hyperemia.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required, as the form is applied topically.

Preparation method (Ointment): For 100 g: dry Acmella oleracea extract 10 g, coconut oil 40 g, beeswax 15 g, shea butter 15 g, anhydrous lanolin 20 g. Melt coconut oil and shea butter in a water bath at a temperature of 45–50 °C, add beeswax and lanolin, mix until homogeneous. Introduce the dry extract, mix thoroughly. Pour into sterile jars until completely cooled.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Ointment): store in a tightly closed container made of dark glass or opaque polymer at a temperature of 5–20 °C, in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 12 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Emulgel — Acmella oleracea

Indication (Emulgel): expression lines, dry skin, decreased skin elasticity, inflammatory dermatoses, skin irritation, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, seborrheic dermatitis, couperose.

Standard Dosage (Emulgel): Apply a thin layer to cleansed facial or body skin 1–2 times a day, gently rubbing until completely absorbed.

Enhanced Dosage (Emulgel): Apply 3 times a day to areas with pronounced dry skin, couperose, or intensive pigmentation, course up to 21 days.

Maximum Dosage (Emulgel): Apply up to 4 times a day for pronounced skin inflammation or severe dehydration, no more than 10 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Emulgel): Once a day at night for a course of 21 days, repeated after 3 months, for signs of photoaging, decreased skin turgor, chronic dry skin in patients over 35 years old.

Pediatric Dosage (Emulgel): From 6 years — apply once a day to limited areas of skin. Data on use in children under 6 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Emulgel): Individual hypersensitivity, acute purulent skin lesions, active dermatological infections. Data on contraindication during pregnancy, lactation, and in children under 6 years of age are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Emulgel): In case of overdose — skin irritation, burning, erythema.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required, as the form is applied externally.

Preparation method (Emulgel): For 100 g: dry Acmella oleracea extract 5 g, coconut oil 15 g, vegetable glycerin 10 g, emulsifier (cetyl alcohol) 5 g, distilled water 65 g. Melt coconut oil and cetyl alcohol in a water bath at a temperature of 45–50 °C, separately heat water with glycerin to the same temperature, introduce the dry extract into the aqueous phase, then combine both phases with constant stirring until a homogeneous mass is obtained. Cool with stirring to room temperature.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Emulgel): store in a tightly closed opaque container at a temperature of 5–20 °C, away from direct sunlight. Shelf life — 6 months. After opening, use within 30 days.

Cosmetic Serum — Acmella oleracea

Indications (Cosmetic Serum): expression lines, decreased skin elasticity, skin laxity, dermal dehydration, photoaging, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, couperose.

Standard Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Apply 2–3 drops to cleansed facial or neck skin once a day, distributing evenly with light massage movements.

Enhanced Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): apply 2 times a day, 3–4 drops to areas with pronounced wrinkles, reduced skin firmness, pronounced dehydration. Course up to 30 days.

Maximum Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): apply 3 times a day, 4–5 drops for pronounced dry skin and deep wrinkles, no more than 14 consecutive days.

Preventive Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): Apply once a day, 2 drops at night for 21 days, repeated after 3 months, to prevent signs of photoaging and decreased skin turgor in patients over 30 years old.

Pediatric Dosage (Cosmetic Serum): not used in children, safety data are not scientifically recorded.

Contraindications (Cosmetic Serum): individual hypersensitivity, acute dermatological diseases, active purulent skin lesions. Data on contraindication during pregnancy and lactation are not scientifically recorded.

Side Effects (Cosmetic Serum): In case of overdose — skin irritation, temporary erythema, burning sensation.

Adjustment for Patient Body Weight: not required, as the form is applied externally.

Preparation method (Cosmetic Serum): For 100 ml: dry Acmella oleracea extract 2 g, fractionated coconut oil 10 ml, hyaluronic acid 1 g, rose hydrosol 87 ml. Dissolve hyaluronic acid in the hydrosol, introduce the dry extract, mix until completely dissolved. Add fractionated coconut oil, mix thoroughly. Pour into sterile bottles with a dropper.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life (Cosmetic Serum): store in a dark glass container at a temperature of 5–10 °C, in a place protected from light. Shelf life — 3 months. After opening, use within 21 days.

Toxicity and Biosafety — Acmella oleracea

In animal studies, Acmella oleracea and its main bioactive compound spilanthol showed low acute toxicity. LD₅₀ values for aqueous and ethanol extracts upon oral administration to rats were over 2000 mg/kg body weight, which is classified as practically non-toxic according to the Hodge and Sterner scale. When applied topically, the extracts did not cause skin irritation or sensitization in standard dermatological tests.

There are no systematic data on chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity in long-term studies. When used in therapeutic doses recommended in phytotherapy and cosmetology, side effects are minimal and mainly associated with individual hypersensitivity.

Reference: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/a...

Pharmacodynamics of Acmella oleracea.

Acmella oleracea contains a complex of biologically active compounds, the key of which is an isobutylamide of an unsaturated fatty acid, which has a pronounced effect on peripheral sensory endings and salivary glands. Local action is accompanied by activation of nociceptive and mechanoreceptors of the oral mucosa, leading to short-term stimulation of afferent fibers of the trigeminal nerve followed by a phase of reduced excitability, providing a local analgesic effect. Marked sialogogue activity is observed due to reflex stimulation of salivary glands via parasympathetic fibers.

Plant extracts demonstrate modulation of the inflammatory response, mediated by suppression of inflammatory mediator production and reduction in the activity of enzymes involved in the arachidonic acid cascade. This confirms its anti-inflammatory action on both mucous membranes and skin. In vitro and in vivo studies have revealed antioxidant properties due to the presence of flavonoids and polyphenols capable of neutralizing reactive oxygen species and reducing lipid peroxidation in cell membranes.

At the skin level, Acmella oleracea exhibits the ability to relax smooth muscle fibers of the dermis, which may be associated with an effect on calcium channels in cells. This effect is used in cosmetology to improve skin tone and elasticity. Local application is also accompanied by a moderate vasodilatory effect due to relaxation of the smooth muscle of the vascular wall, improving microcirculation and tissue trophism.

A number of studies indicate antimicrobial and antifungal activity against opportunistic microorganisms, including yeast-like fungi and gram-positive bacteria. The mechanism presumably involves disruption of the integrity of the microbial cell membrane and inhibition of their enzymatic systems. Insecticidal and larvicidal activity of oil and alcohol extracts has been noted, associated with damage to insect integumentary structures and disruption of their respiratory functions.

Thus, the pharmacodynamic profile of Acmella oleracea encompasses peripheral analgesic, sialogogue, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, vasodilatory, antimicrobial, and muscle-relaxing actions, realized both locally and systemically with certain routes of administration.

Reference: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/a...

Pharmacokinetics of Acmella oleracea

Upon oral administration, the active compounds of Acmella oleracea are rapidly absorbed in the upper gastrointestinal tract, partially undergoing metabolism in the intestinal mucosa and liver (first-pass effect). The lipophilic nature of the main amides facilitates their dissolution in dietary fat components and increased absorption when taken together with oils.

With topical and transdermal application, penetration of active substances occurs through the stratum corneum of the epidermis, facilitated by their low molecular weight and high lipophilicity. In the case of applications on mucous membranes, active components quickly diffuse through the epithelium and reach local nerve endings, then enter the microcirculatory bed, which causes a rapid effect.

Distribution of active substances is noted primarily in lipid-rich tissues, including subcutaneous adipose tissue, cell membranes, and myelin sheaths of nerve fibers. Partial accumulation in adipose tissue and skin is possible with prolonged use.

Metabolism occurs primarily in the liver under the action of enzyme systems involved in the oxidation and hydrolysis of amide bonds. The resulting metabolites have lower biological activity and greater hydrophilicity, facilitating their excretion.

Excretion occurs mainly with bile and feces, a smaller part is excreted by the kidneys with urine; with external use, minor excretion with sweat and sebum is possible. The duration of circulation of active compounds depends on the route of administration, degree of plasma protein binding, and the condition of the liver and kidneys.

Reference: https://www.sciencedirect.com/...

Mechanisms of Action and Scientific Rationale — Acmella oleracea

The pharmacological action of Acmella oleracea is largely associated with the presence of isobutylamide of an unsaturated fatty acid — spilanthol, as well as flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids, and phytosterols. Spilanthol is capable of interacting with peripheral sensory endings, activating transmembrane ion channels TRPA1 and TRPV1, which leads to initial stimulation of afferent fibers, followed by a decrease in their excitability, forming a local analgesic effect. Simultaneously, salivation is activated through modulation of parasympathetic transmission in salivary glands.

The anti-inflammatory action is due to inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX), leading to reduced synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes, as well as suppression of NF-κB activity involved in regulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α). At the cellular level, Acmella oleracea extracts reduce neutrophil and macrophage activation, modulate the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells, contributing to reduced migration of inflammatory cells to the focus of inflammation.

Antioxidant activity is associated with the presence of flavonoids and polyphenols capable of neutralizing reactive oxygen species, increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, reducing lipid peroxidation in membranes. At the level of skin structures, spilanthol exhibits a muscle-relaxing effect due to its influence on calcium channels in dermal smooth muscle cells, leading to a decrease in their tone.

Antimicrobial properties are associated with disruption of the integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane of microorganisms, alteration of its permeability, and inhibition of key enzyme systems. For some strains of gram-positive bacteria and yeast-like fungi, an effect of suppressing growth and biofilm formation has been shown. Oil extracts demonstrate insecticidal action, disrupting the integrity of insect cuticles and inhibiting respiratory functions.

Reference: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/a...

Synergy — Acmella oleracea

Studies show that Acmella oleracea can demonstrate synergistic effects when used in combination with other taxa rich in phenolic compounds and terpenoid components. For example, combination with Curcuma longa enhances suppression of the NF-κB and MAPK cascade, leading to potentiation of anti-inflammatory activity due to simultaneous reduction in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators. Combined use with Camellia sinensis (green tea) increases antioxidant potential due to the additive action of polyphenols from both plants on the system of endogenous antioxidant enzymes.

Combination with essential oils of Melaleuca alternifolia and Lavandula angustifolia demonstrates potentiating antimicrobial action due to synergistic damage to bacterial cell membranes and disruption of their metabolism. When combined with extracts of Azadirachta indica, enhanced insecticidal and larvicidal activity has been noted, associated with parallel effects on insect integumentary structures and respiratory system.

Synergy with Zingiber officinale is expressed in potentiation of vasodilatory and microcirculatory effects through a cumulative influence on endothelial nitric oxide production. Also, in a number of in vitro models, it has been revealed that the combination of Acmella oleracea with Echinacea purpurea leads to modulation of macrophage activity and enhancement of phagocytosis, which can be considered as an additive immunomodulatory effect.

Reference: https://www.sciencedirect.com/...

Geography of Use and Folk Medicine — Acmella oleracea

Acmella oleracea has wide ethnobotanical distribution in tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Africa, and Asia. The plant's origin is considered to be the Amazon basin, where it was traditionally used by indigenous peoples of Peru, Brazil, and Guyana. Archaeoethnobotanical data and oral traditions indicate the plant's use in Amazonian tribal communities even before the colonial period, including as fresh flower heads for chewing to induce oral mucosa numbness and stimulate salivation.

In South America, the plant was part of traditional herbal mixtures, consumed as fresh and dried flower heads, decoctions, and infusions, and also used as chewing mixtures together with other herbs. In African countries such as Madagascar, Uganda, and Cameroon, the plant was used as decoctions and pastes for topical application, as well as a spicy food seasoning. In Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand and Laos, Acmella oleracea is known by local names and used in traditional medicine as alcohol and water infusions, oil macerates, and fresh leaves in cooking.

The ethno-cultural context includes use in the system of traditional Thai medicine, where the plant was considered "warm" according to energetic classification and used for balancing bodily elements. In Madagascar and some regions of Indonesia, the plant was included in ritual mixtures for house cleansing and protection from evil spirits, and also used as a talisman in dried form.

In a number of cultures, Acmella oleracea was used in initiation rites and seasonal festivals. Chewing fresh buds was sometimes used as an element of purification rituals before ceremonies, symbolizing renewal and strengthening of vital energy. Furthermore, in some African and Amazonian traditions, the plant was mentioned as a "plant of power" with protective properties.